
Rook /; ^ ' n'^ 



) 



DniYersity ol the State oi New" York Bulletin 

Entered as second-class matter August 2, 19131 at the Post OfiSce at Albany, N. Y., under the 

act of August 24, 1912 

Published fortnightly 



No. 585 



February 15, 1915 



ALBANY, N. Y. 
f • " LI r-' k i blPoJl J iOrutJi^'UuiZ^ ' 

SYLLXbUS for secondary schools 1910 



PAGE 

Historical sketch 3 

Introductory notes 11 

English 16 

First year English 21 

Second year Ehglish 23 

Third year Enghsh 25 

Fourth year English 26 

Uniform college entrance require- 
ments 28 

Books for supplementary reading 30 

English grammar 35 

History of the English language 

and Hterature 35 

Ancient languages 37 

Latin 38 

Greek 45 

Hebrew 48 

Modem foreign languages 50 

German 50 

French 54 

Spanish 58 

Italian 60 

Mathematics 63 

Advanced arithmetic 63 

Elementary algebra 64 

Intermediate algebra 67 

Plane geometry 69 

Sohd geometry 70 

Trigonometry 70 

Advanced algebra 71 

Physical science 73 

Physics 73 

Chemistry 98 

Biologic science 122 

Biology 122 

Elementary zoology 137 

Physiology and hygiene 139 

Elementary botany 141 

Advanced botany 143 

Advanced zoology 148 

Physical geography 152 

History 168 



PAGE 

Ancient history 175 

History of Great Britain and Ire- 
land 196 

Modem history, part 1 212 

Modem history, part ll . .• 238 

American history 265 

Required reading for history 

classes 288 

Social science 300 

Civics 300 

Economics 319 

Commercial subjects 333 

Commercial credentials 333 

Elementary bookkeeping and 

business practice 335 

Commercial arithmetic. : 339 

Business writing 341 

Advanced bookkeeping 344 

Commercial law 346 

Commercial geography 349 

History of commerce 353 

Commercial EngUsh and corres- 
pondence 359 

Shorthand 1 362 

Shorthand II 363 

Typewriting 364 

Drawing 367 

Elementary design 373 

Elementary representation 381 

Elementary mechanical drawing . . 387 

Intermediate drawing 395 

Advanced drawing 401 

Music 403 

Course for secondary schools 404 

Course for music schools 430 

Home economics 453 

Foods and housekeeping 453 

Dom.estic art 468 

Manual training 477 

Joinery 478 

Wood turning 483 

Pattern making 485 



Hi8r-Agr4-i5co (7-18112) 



ALBANY 

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
I914 

||«nofrra(ib 



; 



THE UIOVERSITY OF ^HE STATE OF ITEW YORK 

Regects of the University 

With years when terms eipire 

1917 St Clair McKelway M.A. LL.D. D.C.L. L.H.D. 

Chayicellor Brookl}^! 

1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.3. LL.D. Vice Chancellor Palmyra 

1915 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. Albany 

1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. ----- New York 

1918 W1LLLA.M Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - -Syracuse 
192 1 Francis M. Carpenter ------- Mount Elisco 

1923 Abram I. Elkus LL.B. D.C.L. ----- New York 

1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D. ------- Buffalo 

1925 Charles B. Alesl^nder M.A. LL.B. LL.D. Litt.D. Tuxedo 

1919 John Moore ---------- Elmira 

192c Andrew J. SmPiiAN M.A. LL.B. LL.D. - - New York 

19 1 6 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A. - - - - - Ogdensburg 

President d the University 

and CommiiBioner of Educatioa 

John H. Finley M.A. LL.D. L.H.D. 

Assistant Commissioners 

Augustus S. Downing M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. For Higher Education 
Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. For Secondary Edtication 
Thojias E. Finegan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. For Elementary Edmation 

Director of Stete Library 

James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. 

Director of Science and State Mtiseam 

John M. Clarke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. 

Chiefs 0! Diriaions 

Administration, George M. Wiley M.A. 

Attendance, James D. Sullivan 

Educational Extension, William R. Watson B.S. 

Examinations, Harlan H. Hori^-er B.A. 

History, James A. Holden B.A. 

Inspections, Frank H. Wood M.A. 

Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A. 

Library School, Frank K. Walter M.A. M.L.S. 

Public Records, Thomas C. Quinn 

School Libraries, Sheralan Willlams Pd.D. 

Statistics, Hiram C. Case 

Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. 

Vocational Schools, Arthur D. Dean D.Sc. 



0, Of B9 

FiB II )M1 



n\9 r. 

University of tlie State of New Yori( Bulletin 

Eatered as second-class matter August 2. I9i3,at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the 

act of August 24, 1912 

Published fortnightly 
) No. 585 ALBANY, N. Y. February 15. 1915 

1 "^ : " 

SYLLABUS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 1910 

HISTORICAL SKETCH 

In tracing the histon- of the Academic Syllabus we find its begin- 
nings in the very early records of the Board of Regents. The 
Board was organized under a statute enacted May i, 1784. .Vt 
a meeting of the Regents held at the Exchange in the city of New 
York, February 28, 1786, it was ordered that a committee be ap- 
pointed to consider '* ways and means of promoting literature 
throughout the State.'' At the second meeting of the reorganized 
Board, November 17, 1787. Erasmus Hall and Clinton Academy 
were incorporated and committees were designated to visit these 
academies and Columbia College, the three institutions of the Uni- 
versity at that date. 

At a regular meeting held in the Senate chamber at Poughkeepsie, 
February 26, 1788, a report to the Legislature was adopted, from 
which it appears that Erasmus Hall had 26 students, and Clinton 
Academy 53 ; that the principal of Erasmus Hall in conjunction 
with the trustees had signified a determination that the classical 
and English departments should be regularly attended to by proper 
tutors; that the first of these departments should comprise the Latin 
and Greek languages with geography and the outlines of ancient 
and modern history ; that the second should comprehend the Eng- 
lish language, reading, writing, arithmetic and bookkeeping ; that the 
French language should also be taught to those that request it. and 
elocution be attended to in both departments : that the students of 
Clinton Academy were instructed according to their several classes ; 
that the first consisted of 12 scholars in the Latin and Greek lan- 
guages, logic, natural philosophy, mathematics and geography : that 
the second consisted of 17 in English grammar, writing, arithmetic 
and accountantsliip, and such of them as chose it were taught the 
French language ; that the common school or class was taught 
reading, writing and arithmetic: that in each of the classes speak- 
ing and reachng in public formed a part of the education received ; 
and that tlie tutors appeared attentive to the instruction and morals 






4 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

of their pupils. In the written record of this interesting meeting 
which was held before the election of the first president of the 
United States we find the substantial outlines of (i) a curriculum 
for the elementary school, (2) a course of study for students pre- 
paring for college and (3) a program of studies adapted to students 
whose education ends in the secondary school. The same report 
shows that Columbia College had 40 students instructed in the Latin 
and Greek languages, geography, natural and moral philosophy and 
the mathematics. 

At the next meeting of the Regents held in Albany, December 25, 
1788, after " sundry papers respecting the state of literature in 
Columbia College and the academies incorporated by .the University 
were laid before the Board," it was ordered that a committee sug- 
gest to the Legislature the " propriety of investing the University 
with some of the lands belonging to the public." The committee 
appealed to the Legislature in the following words : 

In our own State it was evidently intended that the University 
should possess and exercise a general superintendence over all 
literary establishments which might be formed among us and that 
it should direct the system in such a manner as would conduce to 
the harmony and interests of the whole. In the course of our duty 
we have seen with regret that several of the literary establishments 
in this State are destitute of funds for their support and involved 
in debt or dependent on private bounty. 

. Our attention would naturally extend not only to sub- 
sisting literary corporations but to the erection of academies in every 
part of the State ; and it is obvious that the most important pur- 
poses might be attained by affording timely assistance to infant 
seminaries which must otherwise languish for a time and perhaps 
finally perish ... In this situation we trust that it will not be 
deemed improper to suggest that the lands belonging to the State at 
Crown Point, Ticonderoga and Fort George . . . would with 
careful management afford an income to the University. 

In accord with this appeal the Legislature, March 31, 1790, passed 
an act by which the University was invested with the authority to 
take possession of the lands designated in their petition together 
with " a certain island lying within the general bounds of the city 
and county of New York commonly called and known by the name 
of Governors Island . . . and from time to time to dispose of and 
apply the same for the better advancement of science and litera- 
ture ... in such manner and proportion as will best answer the 
ends of their institution." By this same act £1000 were appro- 
priated from the State treasury to be applied by the Regents with- 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 

out delay for the encouragement and promotion of science and 
literature. 

By this act of 1790 New York State established the policy not 
only of setting aside funds for a permanent income but also of 
directly appropriating from the State treasury moneys to be ex- 
pended for secondary and higher education. February 7, 1793, the 
principles governing the apportionment of the literature fund were 
definitely established and provided that pecuniary aid should be ex- 
tended to support additional teachers, to purchase indispensable 
apparatus and books, and to pay the tuition of capable, indigent 
students. These rules were subsequently amended April 17, 181 7, 
and again March 18, 1828, when the Regents ordered that the in- 
come of the literature fund should be distributed to each of the 
academies in proportion to its number of students in the classics and 
in the higher branches of English. To establish a more elevated 
course of instruction in the academies, the Regents at that date 
(1828) "defining with greater certainty the various branches of 
study "''which should entitle the institution to a distributive share of 
the income of the literature fund, ordered (i) that no. one should 
be considered a classical student until he had studied one half of 
Corderius, one half of Historia Sacra, one third of Viri Romae, two 
books of Caesar's Commentaries and the first book of Virgil's 
Aeneid, (2) that no one should be considered a student in the higher 
branches of English until, on examination duly made, he had been 
found qualified in reading, writing, elementary arithmetic, English 
grammar and geography, (3) and that both classical and higher 
English students must have been in attendance at least four months 
and must have been trained in declamation and English composition. 
This ordinance of 1828 fixes the bounds of elementary instruction, 
establishes examinations for admission to the grade of academio 
students and contains the first suggestions of a syllabus for ele- 
mentary and secondary schools. 

But 50 years elapsed before the examinations called for in the 
ordinance of 1828 were in full operation. In 1864 the Regents 
ordered (i) that the students in every academy should be divided 
into two classes to be denominated preparatory and academic; (2) 
that preparatory pupils should be those who pursue studies pre- 
liminary to the higher branches of education, and academic students 
those who having passed the examinations in preliminary subjects 
should pursue higher branches of English education or the classics 
or both; (3) that examinations should be conducted in the presence 



b THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

and under the direction of a committee of at least three persons ; 
(4) that to each student sustaining such examination a certificate 
should be given that should entitle him without further examina- 
tion to admission into any academy subject to the visitation of the 
Regents. From 1870 all answer papers of students claimed by 
principals were reexamined at the Regents office, and in June 1878 
examinations in 20 academic subjects were established on the same 
general plan. 

Tendencies apparent in the ordinance quoted above crystallized 
in chapter 425 of the laws of 1877, by which the Regents were 
directed to establish academic examinations and to furnish a suitable 
standard of graduation and of admission to college. A law enacted 
in 1880 amended the method of distributing the literature fund 
among the academies, by authorizing the Regents to distribute not 
more than one fourth of this fund in proportion to the number of 
students that passed the examinations provided for in the law of 
1877. The Regents accordingly ordered that the sum of $10 should 
be allotted to each academy for each student who during the pre- 
ceding year completed the examinations required for a diploma, 
and $5 for the completion of the examinations for the intermediate 
certificate which covered subjects regarded as indispensable and 
made obligatory for a diploma. This granting of public money for 
results obtained in examinations continued in force until the year 
1900 when it was abandoned, and the Regents recurred to the origi- 
nal method of apportionment for attendance. 

Because the statutes required the Regents to inaugurate a system 
of preliminary and academic examinations, and directed them to 
establish a standard of graduation, it became necessary for them to 
prepare and issue a formal syllabus that should designate and 
delimit the subjects of study in which students should be examined 
and on which credentials should be issued. Accordingly Dr David 
Murray, Secretary of the Board of Regents, issued in December 
1880, a " summary of requirements " in the prefatory note to which 
he said : 

This system of Regents examinations which has now become so 
extended, was devised originally to provide an equitable standard 
for the distribution of funds intrusted to the Board. It is not, 
therefore, the result of any mere educational theory, but a practical 
measure framed for the accomplishment of a definite and important 
object. But while this has been sought as the primary object, the 
Regents have endeavored to keep in view the purpose which such 
examinations may serve, in elevating and regulating the standard of 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 7 

scholarship in the academies of the State. They have endeavored 
to keep them free from the objections which have been urged 
against systems of overstimulation in education. The stimulus has, 
in this case, been applied, not to the scholars, but to the schools, and 
that too in the direction of better and more thorough instruction. 

If there is any valid objection to competitive examinations — and 
strong objections have been urged against them, on account of the 
temptation they ofter to overwork and to hasty and superficial study 
— then it is to be remembered that these examinations are not com- 
petitive. The candidates are permitted to take whatever time is 
required for preparation; to present the subjects in any order, and 
in any number ; and are allowed such liberty in the choice of sub- 
jects as to give due room for variation in taste and talent. The 
examinations are arranged to mark the attainment of certain 
standards of education, and there is no limit to the number of those 
who may attain these standards, nor any competitive distinctions 
between them. . . . There is no such system of secondary in- 
struction in any other state in the Union. There may be single 
schools in other states which are equal to, or even better than, the 
best of New York ; but nowhere else are the schools for secondary 
instruction submitted to such requirements as to their equipment, 
and such tests as to scholarship, or can show as a result such a 
satisfactory record. This gratifying state of things is due. first, to 
the liberal policy which the State has from the beginning pursued 
toward education ; and secondly, to the earnest and intelligent work 
of the principals and teachers, and to their hearty cooperation in 
every effort to advance the standards of scholarship in their insti- 
tutions. 

In December 1882 Doctor Murray in explaining the revision of his 
syllabus writes : 

The present syllabus is a revision of the summar}^ statement of 
the system of Regents examinations which was issued two years 
ago. The Regents have received so many proofs of the utility of 
that statement in facilitating the introduction and management of 
these examinations in the academical institutions under their visita- 
tion, that they have deemed it ex])edient to issue it in a revised 
and more detailed form. The experience of the past two years, 
aided by the friendly criticisms of principals and teachers, has sug- 
gested various improvements in the administration of the svstem, 
which will be found here explained. The additional experience in 
the practical working of the system of examinations has strength- 
ened the opinion that their effect upon the schools and upon the 
scholars is entirely salutary. Besides their principal and original 
use in providing a basis for the distribution of the funds intrusted 
to the Regents, they have served a higher educational purpose in 
elevating and regulating the standard of scholarship in the academies 
of the State. 



8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The edition of 1888 was prepared by Dr Albert B. Watkins with 
the assistance of a committee appointed by the Convocation and 
with the aid of suggestions from principals and teachers. It in- 
cluded a sketch of the system of examinations, general regulations, 
the subjects of examinations. Regents credentials and schedules of 
study. The Associated Academic Principals manifested a profound 
interest in the questions at issue by discussing the subjects to be 
taught, the methods of instruction, the time allotted to each subject 
and its position in a normal curriculum. The five years' experience 
gained under the first syllabus offered ample field for accurate 
criticism and fixed the time limit for future editions. The enormous 
development of secondary schools by the formation of academic 
departments materially broadened the field of view and involved 
problems of administration calling for the readjustment of curricu- 
lums, the lengthening of the period of study and the lessening of 
the number of examinations. 

The edition of 1891 was edited by Dr James Russell Parsons jr, 
under the direction of Dr Watkins. It contained a syllabus of 
subjects in which regular examinations were held to meet the vary- 
ing needs of the secondary schools of the State. Of 69 subjects 
outlined 34 were required for the English and classical -diplomas. 
As a result of suggestions and criticisms from principals and 
teachers some important changes were made in the quantity and 
quality of the work required from the schools. Suggestions were 
offered looking towards improvement in methods of teaching, 
several courses in English were added to the list, general history 
and advanced arithmetic were included among the subjects for 
examination, and three year courses in French and German were 
provided. 

The syllabus of 1891 passed through 10 editions, there having 
been a surprising demand for copies in this and other countries. It 
received favorable comment in school reviews at home and abroad 
and some of the prescribed courses were translated for the benefit 
of foreign teachers. 

The edition of 1895 which was prepared by Dr James Russell 
Parsons jr. Director of Examinations, contained six preliminary and 
71 academic subjects in which regular examinations were held. 
This revision introduced several important changes : the examina- 
tion formerly held in November was discontinued ; schools were 
urged to hold two examinations annually instead of three : full four 
year courses were required for all graduating academic credentials ; 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 9 

academic certificates were given for all preliminaries and any 24, 
36, 48, 60 etc. counts, if one sixth of the 24, 36 and 48 counts were 
in English ; no diplo-ma was given that did not include all pre- 
liminaries and 48 academic counts of which eight were in English 
and not less than six from each of the mathematics, science and his- 
tory groups ; new courses in English for the first, second and third 
years, in English classics from the Greek, Latin, German and 
French, in spheric trigonometry and in home science were added 
together with two reading courses in United States history ; psy- 
chology and ethics were discontinued; an allowance of $5 was made 
for each regular academic certificate issued and $5 extra for the first 
diploma ; and the premium of $5 on the classical diploma instituted 
in 1882 was discontinued. 

The edition of 1900 was prepared by Head Inspector Charles F. 
Wheelock under the direction of Dr James Russell Parsons jr, the 
Secretary of the Board of Regents. The number of academic sub- 
jects in which examinations had been previously given was reduced 
from 75 to 61 ; four new subjects were added in manual training, 
and nine in business branches, making a total of 74. Eleven sub- 
jects in English were substituted for the 17 found in the edition 
of 1895. Outlines for three years' work in Spanish were added, 
similar to those for German and French. In this edition outlines 
for laboratory work in physics and chemistry appeared for the first 
time, and two years later students from schools maintaining labora- 
tory courses in science under regulations prescribed by the Depart- 
ment, were allowed 20 credits towards their examinations. The 
Business Syllabus was primarily devised for private schools, but 
in 1905 more than 40 public schools had established four year 
commercial courses and more than 70 had incorporated into their 
academic curriculum not less than five of the business subjects out- 
lined in the syllabus. 

The edition of 1905 was prepared by Dr Edward J. Goodwin, 
Second Assistant Commissioner of Education. The number of aca- 
demic subjects provided for was 84, including agriculture, home 
science, and shop work in which examinations are not given. Re- 
quirements for academic diplomas were increased from 48 to 72 
counts, and counts were made to correspond with the periods per 
week required. Provision was also made for a system of graded 
diplomas which is continued in the syllabus of 1910. 

A general view of the growth in the number of secondary schools 
and students is presented in the following table. 



lO 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 
NUMBER OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND STUDENTS 



Date 


Schools 


Students 


1787 


2 


79 


1804 


17 


993 


l8S5 


171 


22 824 


1864 


201 


23 035 


1874 


218 


31 463 


1884 


260 


34 162 


1894 


S04 


49 937 


1904 


799 


IC2 279 


1909 


84-0 


12 1 600 



In November 1865, printed preliminary question papers were sent 
to the schools for the first time. Answer papers were first reviewed 
in the office in 1870. In June 1878, academic question papers were 
sent to the schools for the first time. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES 



II 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES 

This syllabus has been prepared to indicate the general scope and 
character of the instruction to be given by the teacher and the work 
to be done by the student. By this means it is expected that ade- 
quate attention will be given to the essentials of each subject, that 
approved principles of teaching will be observed and that embar- 
rassment to students in examinations arising from defective methods 
of instruction or the use of different textbooks, may be obviated. 
It is not designed, however, to interfere with such flexibility in 
courses of study and freedom in methods of instruction as ought 
to exist in secondary schools; but to indicate subjects of study for 
elementary and secondary schools and to present outlines of these 
subjects in the form of graded series of suggested texts for the 
study of English and the foreign languages, lists of topics and ex- 
periments for the laboratory sciences, definitions of standard re- 
quirements in mathematics and topical analyses for history and other 
subjects. 

The list of subjects included in the syllal)us of 1910 is as follows: 



Group I — Language and literature 



(4 First year English) 
(3 Second year English) 
3 Third year English 
3 Fourth year English 

(5 First year Latin) 
5 Second year Latin 
5 Third year Latin 
5 Fourth year Latin 
(5 First year Greek) 

(5 First year German) 
5 Elementary German 
5 Intermediate German 
5 Advanced German 
(5 First year French) 
5 Elementary French 
=; Intermediate French 



ENGLISH 

2 English grammar 
2 History of the English Ian 
guage and literature 

ANCIENT 

5 Second year Greek 
5 Third year Greek 
5 First year Hebrew 
5 Second year Hebrew 

MODERN FOREIGN 

5 Advanced French 
(5 First year Spanish) 
5 Elementary Spanish 
5 Intermediate Spanish 
(5 First year Italian) 
5 Elementary Italian 



12 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



Group II 
2 Advanced arithmetic 
5 Elementary algebra 

2 Intermediate algebra 

3 Advanced algebra 



Mathematics 
5 Plane geometry 
2 Solid geometry 
2 Trigonometry 



Group III — Science 



5 Physics 

5 Chemistry 

5 Biology 

2j^ Elementary botany 

2^ Elementary zoology 



2j^ Physiology and hygiene 
5 Advanced botany 
5 Advanced zoology 
5 Physical geography 



Group IV — History and social science 



3 or 5 Ancient history 

3 or 5 History of Great Britain 

and Ireland 
3 Modern history I 



3 Modern history II 

5 American history with civics 

2 Civics 

2 Economics 



3 Elementary bookkeeping 

business practice 
5 Advanced bookkeeping 

office practice 
2^^ Commercial arithmetic 
2)4 Commercial law 
3 History of commerce 



Group V — Commercial subjects 



and 



and 



_/^ Commercial geography 
3 Commercial English and cor- 
respondence 
2 Business writing 
5 Shorthand I 
5 Shorthand II 
2^ Typewriting 



Group VI — Drawing 



2 Design 

2 Representation 

2 Advanced design 

2 Advanced representation 

3 Mechancial drawing I 



3 Mechanical drawing II 
2 Mechanical drawing III 
2 Mechanical drawing IV 
2 Architectural drawing 



Group VII — Music 

2 Chorus singing and rudiments 4 Musical form and analysis 

of music 3 Dictation and melody writing 

7 Harmony and counterpoint 4 Acoustics and history of music 



3 or 4 Joinery 




3 or 4 Wood turning and pat- 


tern making 




2^/2 Agriculture 


I 


2Y2, Agriculture 


II 


2^ Agriculture 


III 


-/^ Agriculture 


IV 


5 Agriculture 


V 


2}4 Agriculture 


VI 


2^ Agriculture 


VII 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES I3 

Group Vlll — Other subjects 
2 History and principles of edu- 
cation 

2 Psychology and principles of 
education 

2^ Home economics I (sew- 
ing) 

2I/2 Home economics II (dress- 
making and millinery) 

3 Home economics III (foods 
and housekeeping) 

The numerals prefixed to the subjects in the above list indicate 
the number of lessons a week for a year and also the number of 
counts to be earned thereby, except that one count is allowed for 
two unprepared lessons per week. 

Examinations. Examination questions are to be based upon the 
syllabus, but the instruction of the schools and the tests of the De- 
partment may fairly be* expected to give recognition to important 
discoveries in science and such significant changes among the nations 
as shall result in modifications of territorial limits or systems of 
government. The plea that particular textbooks are deficient will 
not be accepted in extenuation of inadequate knowledge. Special 
efforts will be made to state examination questions clearly and not 
to demand a degree of knowledge or skill in statement that may 
not reasonably be required from students in secondary schools. 
On the other hand the schools should contribute their share towards 
the success of the examinations by not permitting their students to 
a'"tempt them until they have satisfactorily completed the work 
prescribed by the syllabus. Special attention is called to the follow- 
ing slightly modified quotation taken from the High School Depart- 
ment Report of 1898: 

A system of examinations adapted to the work of all the schools 
of a great state must of necessity be somewhat different from one 
intended for the students of a single school The personality of the 
teacher, the local environment and the textbook used all tend to vary 
the work done in the different schools. As a result the exact course 
covered in any subject and the emphasis given to the different parts 
of it will not be precisely the same in any two schools in the Uni- 
versity. This is as it should be, for were it not so the work would 
lack individuality and life. To provide for these conditions the 
Academic Syllabus gives, in general terms, very full outlines of the 
subjects in v^hich examinations are held. These outlines are in 



14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

fact SO full that it will be quite impossible for any one class in the 
time allotted to study exhaustively all the topics mentioned, and no 
one textbook would furnish the material for such exhaustive study. 
It is here that the alternative or group system of questions comes 
in to give relief. This gives the student a chance to show what he 
knows, which is quite a different thing from an attem^pt to find out 
what he does not know. If a question paper has been properly pre- 
pared and a class has been properly instructed, each candidate 
should find on the paper some questions that relate to matters which 
have not been taken up in detail in his study of the subject. If this 
is not the case it is evidence either that the questions have not been 
properly distributed over the whole field, or that the instruction and 
study have been distributed over too much of the field. If teachers 
and students will take this attitude toward the examination system, 
all of its limiting and hampering effects will disappear and it v/ill be, 
as it is intended to be, stimulating in the best sense. The teacher 
who expects to train a class of students in 40 weeks to answer any 
legitimate question in any branch of science or history or literature, 
or who leads his students to expect to do it, must certainly have a 
very narrow view both of the subject-matter studied and of the 
mind of the student. 

The Department will issue two examinations in English : the 
first to cover the work of the first three years (10 counts), the sec- 
ond to test the work of the fourth year (3 counts;. 

The reasons presented for the abolishment of the first and second 
year tests in English seem to be equally applicable to the first year 
examinations in the foreign languages. Accordingly students omit- 
ting the first year examinations in German, French, Italian or Span- 
ish will be credited with 10 counts on passing the " elementary " 
examinations in each of those languages which will be designed to 
test the work of the first two years. In like manner, students omit- 
ting the first year examinations in Latin, Greek and Hebrew will 
receive double credits on passing the tests for second year work. 
The Department believes it to be for the good of the schools to 
lessen the number and frequency of formal examinations given to 
immature students, but first year question papers in the foreign lan- 
guages and in first year and second year English will be issued to 
junior and middle schools, and to other schools on request. 

Credentials. To enable the Department to issue examinations 
that shall fully protect the rights and interests of weak or slowly 
developing students and at the same time test adequately the knowl- 
edge and training of the most capable, the following system of dif- 
ferentiated credentials has been adopted and went into operation 
with the class that graduated in June 1909. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTES I5 

1 A diploma based upon a minimum passing mark of 60 per cent 
in each subject. 

2 A diploma ivith credit will be issued if 40 of the required 
72 counts are secured with a standing of 75 per cent or more. 

3 A diploma with honor will be issued if 40 of the required 
72 counts are secured with a standing of 90 per cent or more. 

The recjuirements for the academic diploma which is issued only 
to students taking the Department's preliminary and academic ex- 
aminations, are as follows: English 13 credits, mathematics 10, 
history 8, science 10, elective 31. For the classical academic 
diploma: English 13 credits, mathematics 10. history 5. science 5, 
Latin 20, a second foreign language 15, elective 4. These require- 
ments went into effect June i, 1909, and are continued in the syl- 
labus of 1910. 



GROUP I 

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

ENGLISH 
First year English English grammar 

Second year English History of the English Ian- 

Third year English guage and literature 

Fourth year English 

This syllabus is designed for schools working under widely differ- 
ent conditions. Therefore in order that the work assigned to the 
students each half year may be specific and definite it is essential 
that each school work out for itself a more detailed syllabus based 
upon this and supplementing it in various places. The books for 
reading and study are for the class which entered the high school 
in September 1909 and for succeeding classes. 

1 The elements of the course of study in English are literature, 
composition and rhetoric, and grammar. 

2 Literature, a The books prescribed are selected from the 
list prepared by the National Conference on Uniform Require- 
ments in English, February 1909. It is expected, however, that 
each school will add to this list as many books as can be read to 
advantage in the time devoted to English. The degree of intensity 
with which any of these shall be studied, and the assignment of 
them for class work or for home reading are left to the option of 
each school. It should be remembered that a few books well read 
have much greater educational value than many books read super- 
ficially and yet that a work studied too long or too minutely dulls 
the student's interest and thereby impairs his power to prosecute the 
study of literature with pleasure and profit. It should be remem- 
bered also that intensive study is more profitable for advanced 
students than for beginners. In general several books should be 
read in each of the .earlier terms, while detailed study should be 
postponed until the last year. 

b In order to encourage the habit of reading good books, care- 
fully selected lists should be prepared to guide students in supple- 
mentary reading. Teachers should assist pupils to select books 
from the school and public libraries, should hold class discussions 

16 



ENGLISH 17 

on the supplementary reading done by their classes, and should 
occasionally require written reports on work of this type. 

c In the reading and study of books the student not only should 
gain an adequate knowledge of the selected texts but also should 
give some consideration to the literary epochs and types repre- 
sented by these texts and should memorize choice selections of 
prose and poetry. 

3 Compositon and rhetoric. To secure for the several forms 
of discourse the intensive treatment needed for efficiency, certain 
kinds of work in composition are emphasized in each term of the 
school course. This requirement, however, should not be inter- 
preted to mean that no other types of writing are to be expected of 
pupils. On the contrary the work of every term should include 
practice in some of the kinds of composition previously studied. 
To secure variety students may be called upon to write stories, 
anecdotes, abstracts, character sketches, descriptions of persons and 
places, news items, editorials, and imaginative themes. In all these 
types of work the chief aim of the teacher should be to develop 
the ability of pupils to choose from their own lives what is most 
interesting and instructive. To accomplish this aim it will be 
necessary for teachers to prepare an abundance of problems for 
composition such as befit the capacity, tastes and attainnients of 
different pupils. Such problems should be so broad in their scope 
as to afiford constructive opportunity to every pupil and at the same 
time should be so concretely circumstanced as to penalize random 
efifort and prevent the presentation of secondhand material as orig- 
inal work. Although most of the compositions required may prop- 
erly be short, at least one each term should be long enough to 
demand some sustained effort. When completed it should repre- 
sent the student's best possible work in writing English. To this 
end care should be taken that the subject chosen be one that is 
within the grasp and experience of the student, or one that may 
easily be made the subject of investigation. An occasional theme 
based on a model will be found of value, but such work should 
occupy but a small amount of the time available for composition. 
The preparation of outlines before CGftiipositions are written is 
helpful in securing unity, coherence and proportion. 

In the criticism and correction of compositions and other written 
exercises, incomparably the most important thing is to teach each 
student to criticize his own work and to correct his own errors. As 
a general rule, therefore, a teacher should not read a student's 



lO THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

composition or correct a single error until the latter has had time 
and opportunity to make such changes in his work as sober second 
thought may suggest. 

It will be found, however, that comparatively few high school 
students are capable of detecting during one reading the various 
kinds of errors that creep into their compositions — errors in sen- 
tence structure ; errors in syntax ; errors in the use of words ; 
errors in spelling ; errors in composition ; errors in paragraph forma- 
tion; the omission of essential facts or essential thought. On the 
other hand, it will be found that a student who reads over his com- 
position with the vievv^ of discovering some particular kind of error 
seldom fails to find all the errors of that particular kind. It is well 
to have students read their compositions or other written exercises 
once to discover whether they have covered all of the subject- 
matter that they desire to cover and have arranged it properly in 
paragraphs; the second time to scrutinize the structure of their 
sentences and to correct any lack of unity or any offenses against the 
laws of syntax ; and a third time to correct errors in spelling, punc- 
tuation and capitalization. Sometimes it will be advisable, in the 
case of a student who has a strong inclination to a particular kind 
of error, to read only for the discovery of that error until he has 
grown- into a habit of vigilance against its commission. In a com- 
paratively brief period under training of this kind, a student be- 
comes the severest critic of his own written work and has learned 
a lesson that v/ill be serviceable to him all his life. 

The importance of drill in letter writing can hardly be over- 
estimated. Apart from its general value to all students, it is of 
special importance to those who on leaving school take up some 
form of business. For these reasons practice in letter writing 
should be vigorously pushed during every term of the school course. 
Problems assigned should be widely varied in subject and purpose, 
but just so far as possible they should be such letters as young 
men and young women may be called upon to write in business 
and social life. Failure to write respectable letters should be treated 
as severely as illiteracy. 

A knowledge of rhetoric is of value only as it is related to the 
study of literature and composition. Hence familiarity with the 
dements ?.nd terminology of rhetoric should be developed grad- 
ually from material found in the books read and in the written 
exercises of the pupil rather than from a formal study of a text- 
book on rhetoric. Moreover, students should have acquaintance 



ENGLISH 19 

with the main characteristics of the more important literary types 
such as the epic, lyric, essay, novel and drama. Incidental attention 
should be given to versification in the study of poetry and to com- 
mon figures of speech as they occur in the literature read. 

4 Oral expression. Since in life oral expression is much more 
extensively used than written expression, in connection with all 
work in English attention should be paid to the development of 
clearness in oral expression. Students should not only be helped 
in every way to overcome common errors in speech, but should 
also be trained to express themselves fully and clearly without 
the aid of question or suggestion. In this work constant attention 
should be given to distinctness of utterance, pronvuiciation, inflec- 
tion and phrasing ; and in general oral composition should precede 
and be the basis of written composition. 

5 Grammar. Grammar is a somewhat abstract subject and must 
be continued in the high school. The right study of grammar will 
help to develop power of thought, and increased mental power will 
make the study more interesting and more profitable. For these 
reasons the study of gr^mimar has been arranged as a continuous 
study, though not much time, comparatively, need be given to it. 
It is subordinate to the study of literature and of composition. 
Analysis of sentences should be required each term. These should 
never, in complexity of structure and difficulty of thought, be be- 
yond the grasp of the student, but they should be increasingly diffi- 
cult from term to term. 

The degree of intensity with which the subject should be pursued 
must be left to the option of the school, but it is not expected that 
any school will devote to it a disproportionate number of hours nor 
deal with unusual idioms or grammatical puzzles. Before they 
leave high school, however, students should be able to explain the 
common grammatical relations of the sentence as they are found 
in the prose and verse of standard English literature. The appli- 
cation of analysis and syntax to the study of literature should be 
employed only for the purpose of elucidating diflicult constructions 
or involved sentences. Baser material will serve the purpose of 
practice exercises. 

6 Spelling and punctuation. Throughout the course instruc- 
tion is to be given in spelling and punctuation, as the need may 
arise. The range of instruction in spelling should include proper 
names occurring in the literature read, words misspelled in com- 
positions, and in -general, all words in the student's vocabulary. 



20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

During the earlier part of the course only a few of the more 
important principles of punctuation should be reviewed ; but before 
the close of the fourth year, every student should have received 
such instruction as will enable him to punctuate fully and accurately. 

7 Additional suggestions, a Throughout the course students 
should be taught incidentally how to use dictionaries, encyclopedias, 
and general works of reference. 

b Students should receive some instruction in the history of 
the English language. 

c There should be the closest possible correlation between 
work in English and other branches of school activity. In part 
this may be accomplished by selecting as the subject-matter of com- 
position, information acquired by students in other departments. 

d Teachers should encourage a systematic use of the school 
and public libraries to aid in the study of literature and to give to 
students experience in collecting data, in judging of the relative 
importance of facts, and in using matter thus obtained in oral and 
written compositions. 

Examinations 

The examinations in English in the first three years are intended 
to test three things : the power to write clearly, correctly and 
forcefully ; reasonable familiarity with the books read ; and the 
ability to apply the principles of grammar and rhetoric. Topics for 
composition will be drawn not merely from the prescribed books, 
but from the student's other studies, and most important of all 
from his personal experience apart from reading. Questions and 
topics based on the prescribed books shall be intended to test the 
student's power of using facts rather than his mere knowledge of 
content of the books. To a certain extent students may be asked 
to summarize and interpret unfamiliar passages, i. e. passages from 
other books than those prescribed. It should be remembered that 
the books required for the first three years are for reading not for 
study. 

The examination in fourth year English will differ from the 
others in that greater stress will be laid on the content of the books 
studied, but here as before ability to write well will be regarded as 
of chief importance. 

The three years English examination will be based, as far as 
books are concerned, on 12 books (or combinations of books where 



ENGLISH 21 

two or more are required together as The Ancient Mariner and The 
Vision of Sir Launfal) one chosen from each of the 12 groups 
required for reading during the first three years (pages 21-26). 
In view of the fact that the EngHsh examinations should test 
the student's power of expression rather than his knowledge of 
facts, schools having a three year or a four year course are urged 
to use the three years examination instead of the first year, the 
second year, and the third year papers. By this plan it is less 
likely that emphasis will be laid on unimportant facts in the teach- 
ing of the books of the first three years. 

FIRST YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
first year is to arouse an interest in reading, to teach how to read 
and to develop, through reading, the power to form vivid mental 
pictures. To this end books should be selected, first of all, for their 
wholesome interest to boys and girls. They should be chosen also 
with a view to multiply the student's interests and thus to prepare 
him to read other books to advantage. Some, for example, may 
treat of chivalry, some of romance, others of history, and still 
others of the classic myths and medieval legends. 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Scott. Ivanhoe 

Quentin Durward 

Stevenson, Treasure Island 
II Coleridge and Lowell. The Ancient Mariner and The Vision 
of Sir Launfal 
Poe, Whittier and Longfellow. The Raven, Snow Bound, and 

The Courtship of Miles Standish 
Arnold and Macaulay. Sohrab and Rustum and The Lays of 
Ancient Rome 
Suggested for supplementary reading. Ballads ; fables ; stories 
from the Old Testament ; interesting short stories such as those 
of Irving, Hawthorne, R. H. Davis, Kipling, Thompson Seton, 
Joel Chandler Harris, Stockton and Stevenson ; narrative 
poems by Tennyson, Whittier, Browning and others. 
Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the first year is to secure facility in 



22 THE UN]\'i-:RSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

expression, with some degree of accuracy. To this end students 
should write many compositions. While the criticism of the teacher 
must be concerned with matters of grammar, spelling and punctua- 
tion, it should be largely such as will encourage constructive effort. 
The work of the term shall be as follows : 

1 Letter writing with attention to substance as well as to form. 

2 Short themes both oral and written based for the most part on 
the experience of the student. A fair proportion of the themes 
should be narratives. 

3 A review of capitalization and of the simpler principles of 
punctuation. Elementary study of the principles of unity and co- 
herence in the composition and in sentences. 

Grammar. Analysis of easy sentences. Review, when neces- 
sary, of inflection of nouns and pronouns ; agreement of pronoun 
with antecedent and of verb with subject; distinction between tran- 
sitive and intransitive verbs, between the active and the passive 
voice ; attention to the most common errors in the student's oral and 
written composition. 

FIRST YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups: 
I The Odyssey (in an English translation of recognized lite- 
rary excellence) with the omission, if desired, of books I, 
II, III, IV, V, XV, XVI, XVII 
The Iliad (in an English translation of recognized literary 
excellence) with the omission of books XI, XIII, XIV, 
XV, XVII, XXI, if desired 
Parkman. Oregon Trail, or 
Thoreau. Walden 
II Shakspere. Midsummer Night's Dream 

As You Like It 

Suggested for supplementary reading. Descriptive literature by 

various authors, for example, Hawthorne, Lowell, Goldsmith, 

Blackmore, Burroughs, Irving and Dickens, in addition to 

those mentioned in the first half year. 

Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 

follows : 

I Letter writing. 



ENGLISH 23 

2 Short compositions both oral and written based 'for the most 
part on the experience of the student. A fair proportion of them 
shall be descriptions. The subjects chosen should be simple in 
character, and should relate to what the student has seen in real 
life or in imagination. 

3 Elementary study of the paragraph, and .of unity and co- 
herence in the composition and in the sentence. 

Grammar. Analysis of sentences. Practice in the conversion of 
direct into indirect discourse (statements, questions, commands) 
and vice versa, in the oral and written composition of students ; 
definition and uses of phrases and clauses ; study of synonyms and 
homonyms. 

SECOND YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
second year is to arouse an interest in good books and to develop 
power to think accurately. 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Irving. Sketch Book 

Stevenson, An Inland Voyage and Travels with a 

Donkey 
Bunyan. Pilgrim's Progress, part I 
II Shakspere. The Merchant of Venice 

Twelfth Night 

Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the second year is to secure clearness 
of thought in exposition and argument. 

The work of the term shall be as follows: 

1 Letter writing. 

2 Short themes both oral and written of various types. A fair 
proportion of them shall be expositions. The subjects chosen 
should be for the most part concrete, carefully limited, and within 
the student's experience. Practice should be given in defining 
terms, in rewording common sayings old and modern ; e. g. " Make 
hay while the sun shines." " Trade follows the flag." The topical 
outline and its value. 

3 Further study of paragraph structure with respect to unity, 
coherence and emphasis ; the use of the topic sentence ; connectives ; 
methods of transition. 

Grammar. Analysis of sentences. Conjunctions coordinate and 
subordinate: other kinds of words used as connectives: study of 



24 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

tenses : distinction between the present and the present perfect, the 
past and the present perfect, the past and the past perfect ; consist- 
ency in the uses of tenses ; the distinctive uses of the indicative 
and the subjunctive moods. 



SECOND YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 

I Eliot. Silas Marner 

Goldsmith. The Vicar of Wakefield 
Gaskell. Cranford 
II Palgrave. Golden Treasury (first series) books II and III 
with special attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray, Cowper 
and Burns 
Goldsmith. The Deserted Village and 
Gray. The Elegy 

Browning. Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, How 
They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix, 
Evelyn Hope, Home Thoughts from Abroad, Home 
Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French Camp, 
The Boy and the Angel, One Word More, Herve 
Riel, Pheidippides 
Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 
follows : 

1 Letter writing 

2 Short themes both oral and written of various types. A fair 
proportion of them shall be arguments based on familiar subjects. 
The proposition should be framed so specifically that the student 
can be held to a definite logical treatment. Emphasis should be 
laid on the distinction between assertion and proof. Practice 
should be given in the summarizing of written material. 

3 Kinds of sentences : long and short, periodic, loose, balanced, 
rhetorical question, etc. Variety in sentence structure. Unity, 
coherence and emphasis in the sentence. 

Grammar. Analysis of sentences. Common uses of the in- 
finitive and participles, verbal nouns. Study of auxiliaries in verb 
phrases. 



ENGLISH 25 

THIRD YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching hterature in the 
third year is to stimulate a finer feeling for and higher apprecia- 
tion of literature. 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Lincoln. Selections including at least the two inaugurals, 
the speeches in Independence Hall and at Gettysburg, 
the Last Public Address, and the letter to Horace 
Greeley, along with a brief memoir or estimate. 
The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers 
n Shakspere. Julius Caesar 

Henry 5 

Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the third year is to develop in students 
the power to express their ideas with simplicity, accuracy and 
fulness. 

The work of the term shall be as follows : 

1 Letter writing. 

2 Short themes both oral and written of various types. 

3 Narration which shall include anecdotes and stories with 
simple plots. 

4 Continued study of exposition and argument which shall 
include the study of various methods of paragraph development 
and shall be pursued with increasing insistence on imity, coherence 
and emphasis in the paragraph. Practice in the summarizing of 
spoken material. 

5 Study of diction ; synonyms and antonyms ; specific and gen- 
eral terms ; words frequently misused with special attention to the 
errors in the spoken English of students. 

Grammar. Analysis of sentences. The various adverb relations 
expressed by word, phrase and clause ; e. g. purpose, result, cause 
and manner; the objective (factitive) complement; the adverbial 
objective; accepted idiomatic uses of it, there, as, but, than. 

THIRD YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for reading. One from each of the following groups : 
I Dickens. A Tale of Two Cities, or David Copperfield 
Hawthorne. House of Seven Gables 



26 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

II Palgrave. Golden Treasury (first series) book IV with 
special attention to Wordsworth, Keats and Shelley 
Tennyson. Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elaine, 

and The Passing of Arthur 
Byron. Childe Harold, canto IV and The Prisoner of 
Chillon 
Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 
follows : 

1 Letter writing. 

2 Short themes both oral and written of various types. 

3 Description : the requirements shall show a distinct ad- 
vance over those in the first year in variety of subject and 
method of treatment. Description of persons, of landscapes, of 
buildings, of scenes of action, and descriptions from both fixed 
and moving points of view are all illustrations of the variety 
of the problems that may be assigned. 

4 Practice in expressing opinions on topics concerning which 
students individually have views of their own based on first- 
hand knowledge. 

5 Study of diction in connection with the study of description. 
Further study of the structure of the whole composition and of 
methods of paragraph development. 

Grammar. General review. 

FOURTH YEAR 

FIRST HALF 

Literature. The general purpose of teaching literature in the 
fourth year is to develop the insight and the breadth of view 
resulting from the application of the lessons of literature to the 
problems of life. 
Required for study 

I Burke. Speech on Conciliation with America; 

or 
Washington. Farewell Address "| 



and y 

Webster. First Bunker Hill Oration J 
II Milton. Comus, L'allegro, and II penseroso 
Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching 
composition and rhetoric in the fourth year is to develop power 
to read critically, and to reason soundly. 



ENGLISH 27 

The work of the term shall be as follows : 

1 Short themes of various types, both oral and written. 

2 Letter writing. 

3 Argumentation: briefing, paragraphs illustrative of elements 
in argumentation, e. g. an appeal to the interests of an audience, 
the clear statement of a question, the development of proof, 
summaries of proof, etc. 

4 At least one argument of considerable length, developed 
through formal introduction and brief. The work should demand 
more of the students than did the argumentation of the second 
year. The topics chosen should deal with live questions well 
within the grasp of students. 

5 A review of the principles of unity, coherence and emphasis in 
sentences, paragraphs and compositions. 

Grammar. The study of grammar continued in connection 
with the work in literature and composition, with special atten- 
tion to the simpler idiomatic and elliptical expressions of stand- 
ard English. 

FOURTH YEAR 

SECOND HALF 

Literature 

Required for study 

Macaulay. Life of Johnson, or 
Carlyle. Essay on Burns 

and 
Shakspere. Macbeth 
Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as 
follows : 

1 Letter writing. 

2 Themes of various types. 

3 A composition of considerable length. The student should 
have perfect freedom in the choice of literary form and be ex- 
pected to express himself correctly and forcibly in clear, idio- 
matic English. This production should be a final measure of 
his ability to write. 

Grammar. Continuation of the work of the previous half 
year. 



28 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

APPENDIX 

Uniform college entrance requirements in English for the years 

1913, 1914, 1915 

I The Old Testament, comprising at least the chief narrative 
episodes in Genesis, Exodus, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings and 
Daniel, together with the books of Ruth and Esther ; the Odyssey, 
with the omission, if desired, of books I, II, III, IV, V, XV, XVI, 
XVII ; the Iliad, with the omission, if desired, of books XI, XIII, 
XIV, XV, XVII, XXI; Virgil's Aeneid. The Odyssey Iliad and 
Aeneid should be read in English translations of recognized liter- 
ary excellence. 

For any unit of this group a unit from any other group may be 
substituted. 

II Shakspere's Merchant of Venice ; Midsummer Night's Dream; 
As You Like It; Twelfth Night; Henry the Fifth; Julius Caesar. 

III Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, part I ; Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake- 
Held; either Scott's Ivanhoe, or Scott's Quentin Durward; Haw- 
thorne's House of the Seven Gables; either Dickens's David Cop- 
periield, or Dickens's Tale, of Two Cities; Thackeray's Henry 
Esmond; Mrs Gaskell's Cranford; George Eliot's Silas Marner; 
Stevenson's Treasure Island. 

IV Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, part I ; The Sir Roger de 
Cc^'erley Papers in the Spectator; Franklin's Autobiography (con- 
densed) ; Irving's Sketch Book; Macaulay's Essays on Lord Clive 
and Warren Hastings; Thackeray's English Humourists ; Selections 
from Lincoln, including at least the two Inaugurals, the Speeches in 
Independence Hall and at Gettysburg, the Last Public Address, and 
Letter to Horace Greeley, along with a brief memoir or estimate; 
Parkman's Oregon Trail: either Thoreau's Walden, or Huxley's 
Autobiography and selections from La\ Sermons, including the 
addresses on Improving Natural Knowledge, A Liberal Education, 
and A Piece of Chalk ; Stevenson's Inland Voyage and Travels 
with a Donkey. 

V Palgrave's Golden Treasury (Hrst series), books II and HI, 
with especial attention to Dryden, Collins, Gray,' Cowper and 
Burns ; Gray's Elegy in a Coimtry Churchyard and Goldsmith's 
Deserted Village; Coleridge's Ancient Mariner and Lowell's Vis- 
ion of Sir Launfal; Scott's Lady of the Lake: Byron's Childe 
Harold, canto IV, and Prison-er of Chillon: Palgrave's Golden 
Treasury {first series), book IV, with especial attention to Words- 



ENGLISH 29 

worth, Keats and Shelley ; Poe's Raven, Longfellow's Courtship of 
Miles Standish and Whittier's Snoiv Bound; Macaulay's Lays of 
Ancient Rome and Arnold's Sohrah and Rustum ; Tennyson's 
Gareth and Lynette, Lancelot and Elain.e and The Passing of 
Arthur; Browning's Cavalier Tunes, The Lost Leader, Hozv They 
Brought the Govd Neivs from Ghent to Aix, Home Thoughts from 
Abroad, Home Thoughts from the Sea, Incident of the French 
Camp, Herz'c Riel, Pheidippides, My Last Duchess, Up at a Villa 
— Down in the City. 

■ Study. This part of the requirement is intended as a natu- 
ral and logical continuation of the student's earlier reading, with 
greater stress laid upon form and style, the exact meaning of 
words and phrases, and the understanding of allusions. For this 
close reading are provided a play, a group of poems, an oration, 
and an essay, as follows : 

Shakspere's Macbeth; Milton's L' allegro, II penseroso, and 
Comus; either Burke's Speech on Conciliation ivith America, or 
both Washington's Fareivell Address and Webster's First Bunker 
Hill Oration; either Macaulay's Life of Johnson, or Carlyle's Essay 
on Burns 



30 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR SUPPLEMENTARY 

READING 

The books for each year are grouped by kinds in order that 
the type of reading done may, if it seems best, be correlated 
with the required books in the hands of the' class. 

First year 

Group I 

NARRATIVE POEMS 

Whittier, J. G. Barclay of Ury ; Gift of Tritemius 

Tennyson, A. Dora 

Lowell, J. R. Yussouf ; Mahmood the Image Breaker 

Harte, F, B. Chiquita ; The Lost Galleon 

Southey, R. Inchcape Rock ; Well of St Keyne 

Stevenson, R. L. Heather Ale ; Christmas at Sea 

Bryant, W, C. Little People of the Snow 

Holmes, O. W. The Deacon's Masterpiece ; Grandmother's 

Story of Bunker Hill 
Scott, W. Rosabelle ; Alice Brand 
Macaulay, T. B. Battle of Ivry 

Group II 

SHORT STORIES 

Hale, E. E. The Man without a Country 

Irving, W. Alhambra ; Tales of a Traveller 

Davis, R. H. Stories for Boys 

Seton, E. T. Wild Animals I Have Known ; Lives of the Hunted 

Stevenson, R L. Island Nights Entertainments 

Hawthorne, N. Wonder Book 

Harris, J. G. Uncle Remus 

Group III 

BIOGRAPHY - , 

Brooks, E. S. Historic Boys ; Historic Girls 
Eastman, C. A. Indian Boyhood 
Keller, Helen. Story of My Life 



ENGLISH 



31 



Kaufmann, R. Young Folks' Plutarch 
Yonge, C. M. Book of Golden Deeds 
Hale, E. E. Boys' Heroes 

Group IV 

FICTION 

Cooper, J. F. Spy ; Last of Mohicans ; Pilot ; Prairie 

Stevenson, R. L. Kidnapped; David Balfour 

Stockton, F. R. A Jolly Fellowship ; Captain Chap 

Hughes, T. Tom Brown's School Days 

Dana, R. H. Two Years before the Mast 

Eggleston, E. Hoosier Schoolmaster 

Alcott, L. M. Little Women ; Eight Cousins ; Rose in Bloom 

Monroe, K. Campmates ; Canoemates 

Second year 

Group I 

SHORT STORIES 

Hawthorne, N. Snow Image : Twice Told Tales 
Harte, F. B. Luck of Roaring Camp 
Dickens, C. Christmas Carol ; The Chimes 
Field, E. Little Book of Profitable Tales 
Maclaren, Ian. Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush 
Biown, J. Rab and His Friends 
Fouque, L. M. Undine 
Van Dyke, H. Story of the Other Wise Man 

Group II 

COMEDIES 

Shakspere. Two Gentlemen of Verona ; The Tempest ; Taming 

of the Shrew 
Sheridan, R. B. The Rivals ; School for Scandal 
Goldsmith, O. She Stoops to Conciuer 

Group III 

NOVELS 

Kipling, R. Captains Courageous ; Kim 
Clemens, S. L. Tom Sawyer; Hucklelierry Finn 



32 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Dickens, C. Oliver Twist ; Nicholas Nickleby ; Old Curiosity 

Shop 
Scott, W. Old Mortality; Rob Roy; Heart of Midlothian 
Stockton, F. R, Rudder Grange; Three Burglars 
Barrie, J. M. Little Minister; Sentimental Tommy 
Jackson, H. H. Ramona 

Stevenson, R. L. St Ives ; Weir of Hermiston 
Jewett, S. O. Country Doctor 
Austin, J. G. Betty Alden ; Standish of Standish 

Group IV 

TRAVEL 

Stevenson, R. L. Across the Plains ; Silverado Squatters 

Taylor, B. Views Afoot 

Custer, E, B. Boots and Saddles 

Duncan, N. Doctor Grenfell's Parish 

Grenfell, W. T. Voyage on a Pan of Ice 

Griffis, W. E. Brave Little Holland 

Davis, R. H. The West from a Car Window 

Ralph, J. Our Great West 

Peary, R. Northward over the Ice 

Roosevelt, T. Hunting Trips of a Ranchman 

Howells, W. D. Venetian Life ; London Films 

Lummis, C. F. Tramp across the Continent 

Third year 

Group I 

LYRIC POETRY 

Selected short poems from the following: 

Henley, W. E, (ed.) Lyra Heroica 

Palgrave, F. T, (ed.) Golden Treasury, 2d series 

Knowles, F. L. (ed.) Golden Treasury of American Songs and 

Lyrics 
Riley, J. W. Poems Here at Home ; Old Fashioned Roses 
Field E. Little Book of Western Verse; Second Book of Verse 

Group II 

HISTORICAL FICTION 

Scott, W. Woodstock; Abbott; Monastery 
Thackeray, W. M. Henry Esmond ; The Virginians 



ENGLISH 33 

Kingsley, C. Hypatia ; Westward Ho ! 

Lytton, E. B. Last Days of Pompeii; Rienzi ; Harold 

Stephens, R. N. Gentleman Player 

Doyle, A. C. White Company ; Refugees 

Weyman, S. J. House of. the Wolf; Gentleman of France 

Parker, G. Seats of the Mighty 

Churchill, W. Richard Carvel ; The Crisis 

Page, T. N. Red Rock ; Two Little Confederates 

Wallace, L. Ben Hur 

Kipling, R. Puck of Pook's Hill 

Hugo, V. Ninety-Three 

Group III 

ESSAYS 

Macaulay, T. B. Frederick the Great 

Carlyle, T. Heroes and Hero Worship 

Ruskin, J. Crown of Wild Olive ; Stones of Venice 

Thackeray, W. M. Roundabout Papers 

Barrie, J. M. Margaret Ogilvy 

Stevenson, R. L. Virginibus Puerisque 

Holmes, O. W. Autocrat of the Breakfast Table; Professor at 

the Breakfast Table 
Lowell, J. R. Fireside Travels 
Warner, C. D, My Summer in a Garden 
Burroughs, J. Winter Sunshine ; Signs and Seasons 

Group IV 

TRAGEDIES 

Shakspere. Romeo and Juliet ; Hamlet ; Coriolanus ; Othello ; 
King Lear : Antony and Cleopatra ; Cymbeline ; King Henry 4, 
parts I and H ; King Richard 3 

Fourth year 

Group I 

ORATIONS 

Beecher, H. W. Speech at Liverpool 
Choate, R. Death of Webster 
Webster, D. Adams and Jefiferson 
Phillips, W. Toussaint L'Ouverture 



34 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Sumner, C. True Grandeur of Nations 

Clay, H. On the Increase of the Navy 

Henry, P. The Federal Constitution 

Curtis, G. W. Spoils System and Civil Service Reform 

Burke, E. Speech on American Taxation 

Group II 

BIOGRAPHY 

Irving, W. Life of Goldsmith 

Hapgood, N. Abraham Lincoln 

Washington, B. T. Up from Slavery 

Trevelyan, G. O. Life and Letters of Macaulay 

Boswell, S. Life of Johnson 

Dickens, M. A. My Father as I Recall Him 

Hale, E. E. J. R. Lowell and His Friends 

Lowell, J. R. Letters, edited by Norton 

Cheney, E. D. Life, Letters and Journal of L. M. Alcott 

In addition to these titles, pupils interested in literature will 
find biographies of authors in the English Men of Letters Series, 
Grea Writers Series, and American Men of Letters Series. 
Those interested in history will find biographies in the Ameri- 
can Statesmen Series. 

Group III 

FICTION 

Eliot, G. Mill on the Floss ; Middlemarch 

Austen, J. Pride and Prejudice; Sense and Sensibility 

Trollope, A. Barchester Towers ; Framley Parsonage 

Blackmore, R. D. Lorna Doone 

Ha-wthorne, N. Ilouse of Seven Gables 

Howells, W. D. Rise of Silas Lapham 

Hugo, V. Les Miserables 

Group IV 

POETRY 

Milton, J. Paradise Lost, books I and II 

Tennyson, A. In Memoriam 

Scott, W. Marmion 

Browning, E. B. Sonnets from the Portuguese 



ENGLISH 35 

CRITICISM 

Dowden, E. Shakespeare, His Mind and Art 

Brooke, S, Ten Plays of Shakespeare 

Jameson, A. B. Characteristics of Women (in Shakespeare) 

Van Dyke, H. The Poetry of Tennyson 

Brooke, S, Tennyson, His Art, etc. 

Stedman, E. C. Poets of America ; Victorian Poets 

Lowell, J. R, Among My Books; IMy Study Windows 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

This syllabus has been prepared for such students as desire a 
more exact and complete knowledge of the principles of English 
grammar than can be gained from the prescribed four year course 
in English. The examination will be adapted to the capacity 
of students in the third or fourth year of the high school and 
will be based upon the following outline of topics as treated in the 
best standard textbooks on this subject: 

1 Analysis and classification of sentences; functions of word, 
phrase and clause elements ; subdivision, inflection and syntax of 
the parts of speech. 

2 The use of grammatical analysis for the purpose of elucidat- 
ing obscure or complex constructions. Such exercises in interpreta- 
tion may be given incidentally in connection with the reading of 
masterpieces, but they should be given also in connection with the 
study of literary material selected for this special purpose. 

3 The classification of the common errors of written and spoken 
language and their correction by the student through the applica- 
tion of the rules of grammar. 

HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 

This outline of study has been prepared to supplement the regular 
instruction in English and is designed for the fourth year. It in- 
cludes the history of English literature from its beginnings in 
Saxon times to the present day, the history of American literature, 
and the more important phases of the development of English 
vocabulary and idiom. In the study of the history of literature, 
emphasis should be laid upon prominent movements and tendencies. 
Such movements should be shown to be related, either as cause or 
as eflfect, to important changes in national conditions and ideals. 
Especial attention should be given to premonitory indications of 



36 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

new tendencies in letters or in life. One author in each period 
should be selected as typical of some tendency, and writers of sim- 
ilar characteristics should be grouped about him. Traits noted in 
his works should be noted in theirs, as well as in the work of 
authors preceding or following. The absence of certain traits 
may be no less significant. The details of the author's life should 
be studied only in so far as they make clear the exact nature of his 
accomplishment and the personal characteristics and external con- 
ditions that account for it. 

The student should be led to apply what he learns in this course 
to the books that he has previously studied. He should be enabled 
to place them in true historical perspective and in proper relation- 
ship to each other and to other works of literature. Additional 
reading should be undertaken both to widen this field and to inten- 
sify impressions. In so far as is practicable, the student should 
read from each author, not merely about him. He should rather be 
helped to perceive characteristics for himself than asked to accept 
them from textbook or teacher. 

Some suitable textbook in the history of English literature should 
be in use, supplemented by a small library including the better 
known works of general literature, selected prose and verse, works 
of criticism and of social history, and larger works upon the history 
of literature, English, American and foreign, and upon the history 
of the English language. 

This course should be closely articulated with that carried out in 
accordance with the general suggestions made in the regular syl- 
labus. To the extent that such ofifer suitable material, the books 
for supplementary reading should be chosen from those given on 
p. 17. 



GROUP I (continued) 

ANCIENT LANGUAGES 

Latin Greek Hebrew 

First year Latin Fourth year Latin 

Virgil — Aeneid, books I, II, IV 

Second year Latin and VI 

/- 11- -ixr u 1 T J Sight reading equivalent in amount 

L,aesar — Gallic War, books 1 and ° . , i r -i-- -i 

--. to two books of Virgil 

o- w 1- -It- ^ Latin prose composition 

Sight reading equivalent in amount ^ ^ 

to books III and IV First year Greek 

Elementary Latin composition 

Second year Greek 

Xenophon, grammar, composition, 
and sight translation 

Third year Latin Third year Greek 

Cicero — Catiline I and III. Ora- Homer (Odyssey or Iliad), Greek 

tions for Manilian Law and for verse at sight 

Archias _ ' ' 

Sight reading equivalent in amount First year Hebrew 

to the second and fourth ora- 

tions against Catiline Second year Hebrew ^ 

Latin prose composition Selection from the Old Testament 

Both in Greek and in Latin, examinations in grammar, prose 
composition, prose at sight, and verse at sight will be provided for 
the benefit of candidates who are seeking admission to colleges that 
require special examinations in these subjects, and the results of 
such examinations will be recorded, but no counts will be given 
for them. 

General suggestions. In the teaching of Latin and Greek 
three lines of work must be carried forward simultaneously : ( i ) 
inflection and derivation, (2) syntax, (3) interpretation and trans- 
lation. During the first year the first of these must receive the 
most attention. At no time, however, should the three be sepa- 
rated. The final translation into English is the capstone of a build- 
ing whose foundations and walls depend on correct knowledge of 
the first two. In the following outlines the chief emphasis has been 
put on matters of grammar during the first year's work. The ac- 
quisition of an adequate vocabulary, with ability to recognize words 
as readily by sound as by sight, and the attainment of power to 
follow the sense in the words and order of the original, are also of 
great importance and should not be deferred. If this work is well 
and faithfully done, the victory is gained. The student may then 
give more attention to the literary side of his reading and to the 
various questions connected with the subject-matter of the authors 
studied. 



38 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

To acquire power to understand and ability to translate a foreign 
language it is essential that the student should have constant 
practice in elementary composition and in translations at sight. 
Oral and written " composition fixes the student's vocabulary in 
mind, serves as a constant review of the forms and quickens his 
sensitiveness to the peculiar significance of the order of words in 
the prose sentence and to the difference of meaning between simi- 
lar words and constructions. Exercises in the reading of unpre- 
pared passages enable the teacher to discern and to meet the 
student's difficulties in the interpretation of a new sentence, and 
give the student readiness in translation and a feeling of mastery 
over the language. Rapid reading, as well as an exact interpreta- 
tion, is necessary to true scholarship." 

LATIN 

Suggestions concerning preparation 

Exercises in translation at sight should begin in school with the first lessons 
in which Latin sentences of any length occur, and should continue through- 
out the course with sufficient frequency to insure correct methods of work on 
the part of the student. From the outset particular attention should be 
given to developing the ability to take in the meaning of each word — and 
so, gradually, of the whole sentence — just as it stands; the sentence should 
be read and understood in the order of the original, with full appreciation of 
the force of each word as it comes, so far as this can be known or inferred 
from that which has preceded and from the form and the position of the 
word itself. The habit of reading in this way should be encouraged and cul- 
tivated as the best preparation for all the translating that the student has to 
do. No translation, however, should be a mechanical metaphrase. Nor should 
it be a mere loose paraphrase. The full meaning of the passage to be 
translated, gathered in the way described above, should finally be expressed 
in clear and natural English. 

A written examination can not test the ear or tongue, but proper instruction 
in any language will necessarily include the training of both. The school 
work In Latin, therefore, should include much reading aloud, writing from 
dictation, and translation from the teacher's reading. Learning suitable pas- 
sages by heart is also very useful, and should be more practised. 

The work in composition should give the student a better understanding of 
the Latin he is reading at the time, if it is prose, and greater facility in read- 
ing. It is desirable, however, that there should be systematic and regular 
work in composition during the time in which poetry is read as well; for 
this work the prose authors already studied should be used as models. 

I Amount and range of the reading required 

I The Latin reading required of candidates for admission to college, with- 
out regard to the prescription of particular authors and works, shall be not 
less in amount than Caesar, Gallic War, I-IV; Cicero, the orations against 
Catiline, for the Manilian Law, and for Archias ; Virgil, Aeneid, I-VI. 



LATIN 39 

2 The amount of reading specified above shall be selected by the schools 
from the following authors and works: Caesar (Gallic War and Civil War) 
and Nepos (Lives) ; Cicero (orations, letters, and De Senectute) and Sallust 
(Catiline and Jugurthine War) ; Virgil (Bueolics, Georgics, and Aeneid) 
and Ovid (Metamorphoses, Fasti, and Tristia). 

II Subjects and scope of the examinations 

1 Translation at sight. Candidates will be examined in translation at sight 
of both prose and verse. The vocabulary, constructions, and range of ideas 
of the passages set will be suited to the preparation secured by the reading 
indicated above. 

2 Prescribed reading. Candidates will be examined also upon the following 
prescribed reading: Cicero, orations for the Manilian Law and for Archias. 
and Virgil, Acncid, I, II, and either IV or VI at the option of the candidate, 
with questions on subject-matter, literary and historical allusions, and pros- 
ody. Every paper in which passages from the prescribed reading are set 
for translation will contain also one or more passages for translation at 
sight; and candidates must deal satisfactorily with both these parts of the 
paper, or they will not be given credit for either part. 

3 Grammar and composition. The examinations in grammar and composi- 
tion will demand thorough knowledge of all regular inflections, all common 
irregular forms, and the ordinary syntax and vocabulary of the prose authors 
read in school, with ability to use this knowledge in writing simple Latin 
prose. The words, constructions, and range of ideas called for in the exami- 
nations in composition will be such as are common in the reading of the 
year, or years, covered by the particular examination. 

Note. The examinations in grammar and composition may be either in separate paper- 
or combined with other parts of the Latin examination, at the option of each individual institus 
tion; and nothing in any of the above definitions of the requirements shall be taken to prevent 
any college from asking questions on the grammar, prosody, or subject-matter of any of the passages 
set for translation, if it so desires. 

Increased stress upon translation at sight in entrance examinations is not 
recommended solely upon the ground of the merits of this test of the train- 
ing and the ability of the candidate for admission to college. Two other con- 
siderations had great weight with the commission : the desirability of leaving 
the schools free to choose, within reasonable limits, the Latin to be read by 
their students; and the possibility of encouraging students and teachers alike 
to look upon the school work as directed toward the mastery of the laws of 
language and the learning to read Latin, rather than the passing of examina- 
tions of known content, a superficial knowledge of which may be gained by 
means unprofitable in themselves and in their effect upon the student's habits 
even vicious. The commission is supported in this recommendation by reso- 
lutions passed by the American Philological Association, the Classical Asso- 
ciation of New England, the Classical Association of the Atlantic States, and 
various smaller organizations of teachers. Moreover, the recommendation is 
in line with the practice of other countries and the present tendency in our 
own country. 

The foregoing is taken from the report of the Commission on 
College Entrance Requirements. 



40 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The commission was appointed Undef the allspices, of the Amer- 
ican Philological Association acting upon petitions from the Class- 
ical Association of New England, the Classical Association of the 
Atlantic States, and the Classical Association of the Middle West 
and South. The eminence of the men who composed the commis- 
sion and the representative positions which they occupy render their 
report worthy of adoption by all schools at as early a date as may 
be possible. But owing to the fact that in this State as in all other 
states there are many schools that can not at once meet the condi- 
tions of this report which are ideal, the following syllabus has been 
prepared substantially in accord with the recommendations of the 
commission. 

The object of this syllabus is to develop in the pupil greater 
power to read and understand Latin by limiting the amount of 
Latin required for intensive study and by increasing the oppor- 
tunities for sight reading. 

First year. The work of this year should be intensive, and 
should furnish by constant drill a sound foundation for the work 
of later years. It should include a carefully mastered vocabulary 
of about 500 common Latin words. All common regular paradigms 
and forms should be thoroughly committed to memory and made 
easily usable by constant drill and application. Special attention 
should be given during the first year to the formation of correct 
habits of translation, and no result should be regarded as satis- 
factory until the Latin can be rendered into exact and idiomatic 
English. This being very largely a matter of practice, frequent 
and rapid reviews can not be too urgently recommended. The 
previous acquaintance of the student with the principles of English 
grammar should be reenforced by constant reference to correspond- 
ing constructions in the Latin. In a very simple way the elements 
of word formation should be put before the pupil in this year. 
Attention should be regularly called to simple Latin derivations, 
and the pupil should be led to group together words from a com- 
mon root. 

The regular forms of noun and adjective declensions, conjuga- 
tions of regular verbs, the verb sum and its more common com- 
pounds, the frequently recurring forms of volo, fero and eo, and 
the comparison of adjectives and adverbs, should be carefully 
learned. It is strongly recommended that, as far as may be possible 
with the book used, the study of the irregular and the defective 
verbs, the gerund and gerundive, and the periphrastic conjugations, 



LATIN 41 

be not taken up until the first part of the second year. The year 
requires a systematic and complete study of the fundamental and 
simple applications of the ordinary rules of Latin syntax. No time 
should be spent on such applications of syntax 'as are not frequently 
found in the Latin that is to be read during the second year. 

In pronunciation the pupil sh'ould be required from the begin- 
ning to observe the quantity of each vowel. The ear should be 
trained by exercises in translating Latin sentences read aloud by 
the teacher. No Latin sentence should be translated before it has 
been read aloud with -careful attention to intelligent expression and 
correct phrasing. It -is recommended that as much as possible of 
the work of the first year should be done orally. 

The pupil during this year should grow accustomed to trans- 
lating from Latin into English very easy sentences which he has 
not before seen. Both the ear and the eye should be trained to 
this exercise. The sentences should be carefully framed or chosen 
to illustrate the principles of syntax, vocabulary and inflections 
studied, and should be considerably less dilTicult than those assigned 
for prepared work. These sentences should be supplemented by 
easy fables or anecdotes. 

Regular exercises in Latin composition should be used for the 
purpose of more clearly fixing the points suggested above. In these 
exercises the sentences should be short and free from all unneces- 
sary difficulties and complexities. 

The work of this year is far more important than that of any 
later year, and on its thoroughness depends the future success of 
the student. It is the year for acquiring a working vocabulary, 
a mastery of ordinary forms and of the simpler principles of Latin 
syntax. 

Second year. Caesar — Gallic War, books I and II ; sight read- 
ing equivalent in amount to books III and IV of the Gallic War 
to be selected from Caesar {Gallic War and Civil War) and 
Nepos {Lives). 

The second year is a critical period in the study of Latin, inas- 
much as it is in this year that the student will show whether or 
not he has acquired the power during the first year to enable him 
to take up the reading of a Latin author. All the first year's work, 
in the matter of forms and of applications of rules of syntax, 
should be carefully reviewed, and the subject-matter amplified as 
the demands of the author show the need. The general principles 
of indirect discourse should be sufficiently mastered to warrant 
the intelligent reading of the author prescribed for the year. 



42 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Students should have constant practice in translating at sight 
easy portions of advanced lessons, and other selections not involv- 
ing too great difficulties, the teacher supplying the meaning of 
unusual words. 

The study of the vocabulary and of the common elements of 
word formation should be strictly insisted upon. The following 
prefixes and suffixes are recommended for special study during the 
second year: 

Nouns of agency in -tor. Verbal nouns in -tio (sio), -tus (sus) 
gen. -us. Abstract nouns in -ia, -itia, -tas, -His, -tudo. The prep- 
ositional prefixes ab, ad, ante, circum, con, de, ex, in, inter, oh, 
per, prae, pro, sub, tra (ns). The inseparable particles dis- and 
red-. This list is not to be regarded as in any sense complete but 
is merely suggestive. 

Enough history and geography should be taught to make an 
intelligent setting for the matter read. At the completion of this 
year's work the pupils will be expected to show at the examination 
a thorough knowledge of forms, regular and irregular, a knowledge 
of the common idioms as far as used in the author read, a power 
to translate at sight simple passages involving the usual vocabulary 
and forms, and the ability also to translate into Latin simple 
English sentences. 

About one half of the examination at the end of this year will 
be based on books I and II of the Gallic War, the other half will 
consist of simple sentences in Latin prose composition based on 
books I and II of the Gallic War and of sight translation not to 
exceed in difficulty the works recommended for this year. Candi- 
dates must deal satisfactorily with both these parts of the paper, or 
they will not be given credit for either part. 

Third year. Cicero — In Cat.ilinam I and ///, De Lege 
Manilia, Pro Archia Poeta; sight -reading equivalent in amount to 
the second and fourth orations against Catiline, to be selected from 
Cicero (orations, letters and De Senectute) and Sallust {Catiline 
and Jugurthine War). 

The third year of Latin should embrace a careful and thorough 
review of the work of previous years, and a completion of the 
etymologic and syntactic parts of the Latin grammar, as applied 
to simple prose constructions. Facility in translation should be 
attained, a fair working vocabulary acquired, and also a general 
historical and geographical knowledge of the times, places and 
peoples referred to in the writings of the author, together with the 



LATIN 43 

ability to write simple and connected Latin prose with a fair de- 
gree of accuracy. The writing of Latin should be carried on 
throughout the year concurrently with the study of the text. The 
power to read at sight must be constantly tested, but care should 
be taken to avoid too difficult Latin in selecting passages for this 
purpose. 

For the work in word formation, the following are recommended 
for special study during the third year : 

Verbal nouns in -or; -iitiii; -men, -moitiiin ; -biiliiin, -ciilum; 
-criim, -trum. Adjectives in -His, -bilis; -osiis: and those having 
the various ending signifying pertaining to or belonging to: De- 
nominative, inceptive, and frequentative or intensive verbs. The 
inseparable particle sc (d). This list is- not to be regarded as in 
any sense complete, but is merely suggestive. 

About one half of the examination at the end of this year will 
be based on the prescribed texts, the other half will consist of 
Latin prose composition based on these texts- and of sight trans- 
lation not to exceed in difficulty the works recommended for this 
year. Candidates must deal satisfactorily with both these parts of 
the paper, or they will not be given credit for either part. 

Fourth year. Virgil — Aeneid, books I, IL IV and VI; sight 
reading equivalent in amount to two books of Virgil to be selected 
from Virgil {Bucolics, Georgics and Aeneid), and Ovid {Meta- 
morphoses, Fasti and Tristia). 

In connection with the translation, enough attention should be 
given to prosody to enable the pupil clearly to understand the 
structure and quantities of the dactylic hexameter. 

Mythology, the geography of the Aeneid, and the figures of 
rhetoric should receive due attention. The humanistic and historic 
aspects of the poem also should be studied. 

Exercises in Latin composition which should be continued 
throughout the year should be based on the prose texts previously 
read. 

During the year choice expressions and thoughts of the author 
should be memorized to the extent of at least 50 lines, with care- 
ful attention to the meter of the text. At the end of the year 
students should be able to translate at sight any selection of the 
author in which involved constructions or obscure references do 
not appear. 



44 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The following are recommended for special study during the 
fourth year : 

Nouns of agency in -trix. Verbal nouns in -tura (sura). 
Diminutives. Patronymics. Adjectives in -ax; -ens; -tiis. The 
derivation (in contrast to the exact formation) of many words 
should be pointed out to help establish their meanings in the pupil's 
minds in ways other than by sheer memorizing. 

About one half of the examination at the end of this year will 
be based on the prescribed reading, the other half will consist of 
Latin prose composition based on Cicero and of sight translation 
not to exceed in difficulty the works recommended for this year. 
Candidates must deal satisfactorily with both these parts of the 
paper, or they will not be given credit for either part. 

General suggestions 

Translation. Idiomatic English should always be required 
and every exercise in translation should be a lesson in English 
composition. The translation of a Latin word by the English word 
most readily suggested by its: form should be permitted only where 
the English word conveys the exact meaning of the original. 

Occasional exact, idiomatic translations in writing are recom- 
mended. In all review work accuracy and fluency should be in- 
sisted upon. 

The unity of the English sentence must be preserved in trans- 
lation. Hence, the translation of a single Latin sentence will often 
require more than one English sentence. 

Sight reading. As the translation of a passage of Latin at 
sight is a very delicate and thorough test of a pupil's knowledge 
of the subject, the ability to do this should be cultivated most care- 
fully and most thoughtfully by the teacher. It depends upon the 
pupil's sure and exact knowledge of (i) inflections, (2) vocabu- 
lary, (3) syntax. In exercises of this kind, therefore, the passages 
should be chosen with care as to subject, vocabulary, and difficulty. 
Much reading of the Latin of the passage should be done before 
an attempt is made at translation. In reading, the pupil should be 
required to observe the composition of the words, their endings, 
and their probable relation as dependent both upon ending and 
position. Careful attention should be called to the structure of 
each sentence and to the relation of the clauses. The meanings 
of words which the pupil is not supposed to know should be given 
to him, or he may have at hand a vocabulary or dictionary for 



GREEK 45 

these. An exercise of this kind should be one of directing on the 
part of the teacher. Such hints and information should be given 
as are needed to prevent a waste of effort by the pupil. Inde- 
pendent work is always to be encouraged, and the help given should 
be withdrawn gradually as the pupil's power grows. 

Prose composition. In the first year the work in prose com- 
position should consist of very short easy sentences to be trans- 
lated into Latin, wnth the vocabulary and syntax limited to the 
words and constructions in most common use. This work should 
begin very early in the first year, it should be frequent, and it 
should be largely oral. Emphasis should be laid upon the con- 
struction of sentences; but, as the pui)il gains power, passages of 
easy connected prose may be properly set for translation into 
Latin. 

For success in this subject much drill is necessary and practice 
should be continuous and not limited to any part of the term. 
Oral translation should be encouraged. When written work is re- 
quired it is recommended that errors be corrected by the writing 
of similar exercises rather than by the rewriting of the corrected 
work. Copying on the blackboard of prepared exercises by the 
pupil should not be allozved ; the pupil should be required to trans- 
late directly from English into the Latin. 

GREEK 

The course in Greek requires three years of high school work, 
five periods per week. The examination for the first year will cover 
first year work as outlined below. The examination for the second 
year will include questions on Greek grammar, Greek composition, 
translation of passages from Xenophon, and the sight translation of 
easy Greek prose. 

The examinations of the third year will include questions on 
grammar and composition, translation of passages from Homer 
(Odvssey or Iliad), and translation of Greek verse at sight. 

In accordance with the general suggestions at the beginning 
of this syllabus, the attention of the pupil beginning Greek 
should be directed from the outset to the roots of words, to the 
more common prefixes and suffixes and to the endings of the in- 
flections. For example, such words as f j/1"9, /lf>r"? and /;0«^"ir, three 
simple nouns of the second declension, afford ample opportunity 
for illustrating English derivations from Greek words, stems or 
roots. The forms of Greek proper names,, when written in 



46 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

the Roman alphabet, and their proper Enghsh pronunciation 
should receive careful attention. Neatness in writing Greek 
words, correct forms of the letters, and exactness in the placing 
of accents are to be enforced. Much oral practice in correct ac- 
centuation should be given to illustrate the rules. Good habits may 
be formed quite as easily as bad ones ; no slovenly or vague work 
should be allowed at any time; the value of a right beginning can 
not be overestimated. 

It is suggested that the examinations in Greek be deferred 
until the end of the second year, when by passing the examina- 
tion in grammar, composition and Anabasis lo counts will be 
earned the same as if the examination of each year was passed 
separately. 

First year. The work of the first year should include a 
thorough knowledge of forms in common use, and of the topics 
of grammar indicated in the following paragraphs : 

The sounds of the language and their graphic representation, 
the pronunciation of the vowels, particularly of <> and o of 
the diphthongs £: and s:u, the classification of sounds, the real 
character of the aspirates and of the double consonants, the 
rules of euphony and the principles of accentuation must be 
thoroughly mastered. The student should know the inflection 
of all the main classes of nouns, adjectives and participles, but 
time should not be spent on unusual forms or categories. 
Further, the scope of the examination includes the comparison 
of regular adjectives and the formation of adverbs. The re- 
flexive and correlative forms of the pronoun should receive care- 
ful attention in regard to both form and use. The student must 
be able to form from the verb stem or from any inflected form 
given him the principal tense stem, and to inflect the tenses 
throughout the various modes. The present, the aorist and the 
future in all voices, and the perfect in the middle and the pas- 
sive are the most important forms. The analysis of Greek 
words should be made a constant exercise. By so doing much 
time is saved which would otherwise be spent in hunting up 
words of like origin in the dictionaries. The grouping of words 
with a common base or a common suffix should be practised, 
and yet work of this character should be intrpduced gradually 



GREEK 47 

as the various categories are reached, and should not be crowded 
into one or more lessons by itself. The student should know 
the formal use of the cases, of the modes in simple sentences, 
of conditions, and of the relative clauses and conditions in in- 
direct discourse. Of importance further on are the uses of pro- 
nouns, particularly of the relative pronouns, also the use of the 
main conjunctions 'h^a, ti.r], ihnrt^ idd^ (U^ el and i'h and of the 
modal adverb «> to which special attention should be given. 
The student will be expected to translate into English an easy selec- 
tion, and to form short sentences in Greek. The passages for 
translation may involve a knowledge of the various subjects enumer- 
ated in the preceding paragraphs. 

Second year. Xenophon's Anabasis. Three books of Xeno- 
phon's Anabasis shall serve as the basis of the examination in 
prepared reading, and books IV and V are recommended for 
sight reading. The candidate will be expected to translate any 
selected passages into good English. He should be thoroughly 
familiar with the regular inflections, and be able to state clearly 
and to apply the most important rules of syntax. Thorough 
training in the laws of indirect discourse is strongly advised, 
and, as a preliminary to this, care must be taken that the ordi- 
nary uses of the modes and their time relation are fully under- 
stood. Constant attention to the English derivatives is also 
recommended as adding to the interest of the study of Greek. 
The student should be able to give the meaning of each con- 
stituent of compound words and the effect of each part on the 
significance of the compound. The examinatioti will include 
questions on the subject-matter of the text, involving an elemen- 
tary knowledge of the geography and history of the countries 
traversed by the expedition. The student will also be expected 
to have learned, through supplementary reading, histories or 
other works, the main facts of the narrative as a whole. 

Preparation for examination in Greek prose composition can 
be made only by careful, systematic drill in the translation of 
English into Greek. This should be carried on concurrently 
with the reading of the Anabasis. Principles of syntax illus- 
trated in the author read should be applied in composition based 
on the text. 

The examination in prose composition will require the writing 
of short sentences designed to test the student's knowledge of 
such forms and constructions as are common in the first two 



48 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

books of Xenophon's Anabasis ; and unusual words, if called for, 
will be given in the examination paper. All Greek words are 
to be distinctly written and correctly accented. 

Third year. Homer, about 1500 lines which may consist of (i) 
Odyssey: Book V lines 1-58, 81-115, 148-224, 262-332, 388-99, 
441-93; book VI complete; book VII 1-55, 69-102, 103-84; book 
IX 1-115, 168-566; book X 1-79, 133-306 and where time permits, 
books XI and XII ; or (2) Iliad^ first three books, excepting 
catalogue of the ships. 

Smoothness in translation without sacrifice of accuracy, and 
familiarity with Homeric syntax, will be expected. The student 
should have a thorough acquaintance with the rules of prosody 
and their exceptions, and the laws of hexameter verse.- The 
scansion of exceptional as well as regular verses from the text 
will be required. In oral practice the attention of the student 
should be carefully directed to the real meaning of quantity 
as made manifest by the musical symbols now found in all 
grammars. Homer's verses should not be badly anglicized ; 
and if the ear is first trained, the true rhythm is easily caught. 
A knowledge of epic forms sufficient to give certainty in recog- 
nizing the main types will be necessary, but the work in Homer 
is not expected to be primarily grammatical. It is of very great 
importance that there should be at least a general acquaintance 
with the whole story of the Iliad or Odyssey, through supple- 
mentary reading of good English translations, sight reading or lec- 
tures, and special familiarity with those scenes and passages which 
are recognized everywhere as masterpieces of the world's literature. 

It is strongly urged that much sight reading be done both 
in prose and poetry. For the sight work in prose Xenophon's 
Anabasis, books IV and V, and easier passages from Plato are 
suggested, and in poetry parts of Homer other than the pre- 
scribed readings. 

HEBREW 

First year: Elementary 

This involves acquaintance with the Hebrew printed text, com- 
prising the alphabet, the characters and names of the vowel signs, 
syllables, silent sh'wa, the quiescents, mappiq, daghesh forte and 
daghesh lene, gutturals, the more common prose accents, methegh, 
maqqeph and raphe. 



IIEBKEW 49 

The student should be trained in writing Hebrew, forming 
the letters after the general model of the printed character. 
Exercises in transliteration, that is transferring characters and signs 
into their English equivalents and vice versa, should be in constant 
use. Next follows the study of the parts of speech and their modi- 
fications as the result of inflection, including the article, pronouns 
(personal, demonstrative etc.), prepositions, nouns. The simpler 
forms of the verb. All the seven so-called species should be taken 
up at the same time so that easy sentences may be formed and 
exercises be used in turning Hebrew into English and English into 
Hebrew. 

A vocabulary of the more usual words should gradually be 
acquired. Care should be taken to pronounce aloud, accurately 
and distinctly. 

The student is now prepared to take up the Old Testament 
text. 

Selections should be read from the narrative portions such 
as Genesis, Deuteronomy, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Ruth, Jonah, 
Esther. 

Some facility should be acquired in supplying an unpointed 
text with vowels. 

In connection with the study of the text the references in the 
textual index of the Grammar of Gesenius-Kautztsch (Germian or 
lates.t English translation) should be carefully looked up. 

Second year 

The student now passes on to the reading of the prophetical 
and poetical portions of the Old Testament — Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
the Minor Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs, Job. 

Systematic attention will be paid to syntax in connection 
with the use of the Grammar of Gesenius-Kautztsch and Driver's 
Hebrczv Tenses. 

The general principles of Hebrew meter will be considered. 

Kittel's Edition of the Old Testament in Hebrew will be useful 
in this connection. Some practice may be acquired in Textual 
Criticism on the basis of comparison with the versions, particu- 
larly the Septuagint. 



GROUP I (concluded) 

MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES 
German French Spanish ItaHan 

Three grades of instruction in the modern foreign languages, 
elementary, intermediate and advanced, have been adopted in 
accordance with the recommendations of the Modern Foreign Lan- 
guage Association of America, the three grades corresponding nor- 
mally to courses of two, three and four years respectively. 

Throughout the course, the language should be treated as a 
living language, and special emphasis should, from the beginning, 
be placed on the training of the tongue and the ear. 

The selection of reading matter should include certain texts 
which are suggested for the several years with the understanding 
that passages selected for examination papers will not be more diffi- 
cult than these. Certain poems are also designated for memorizing, 
but these are suggestive of the kind of poems rather than of the 
precise selections to be used. 

The exclusive use of texts with vocabularies is deprecated, es- 
pecially in the third and fourth years, when the use of the dic- 
tionary should be encouraged. 

GERMAN 

I Elementary requirement 

Aim of the instruction 

At the end of the elementary course in German the pupil should 
be able to understand or write from dictation simple narrative 
prose ; to translate at sight a passage of simple dialogue, prose or 
poetry, help being given upon unusual words and constructions ; to 
put into German short English sentences taken from the language 
of everyday life or based upon the text given for translation, and to 
answer questions based upon the rudiments of grammar, as defined 
below. 

Work to he done 

During the first year the work should comprise: (i) careful 
drill upon pronunciation; (2) the memorizing and frequent repeti- 
tion of easy colloquial sentences; (3) drill upon the rudiments of 
grammar, that is, upon the inflection of the articles, of such nouns 
as belong to the language of everyday life, of adjectives, pronouns, 

.SO 



GERMAN 51 

weak verbs, and the more usual strong verbs ; also upon the use of 
the more common prepositions, the simpler uses of the model aux- 
iliaries, and the elementary rules of syntax and word order ; (4) 
abundant easy exercises designed not only to fix in mind the forms 
and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate readiness in the 
reproduction of natural forms of expression; (5) the reading of 
from 75 to 100 pages of graduated texts from a reader or from 
the texts given below, with constant practice in translating into 
German easy variations upon sentences selected from the reading 
lesson, and in repeating from memory of sentences previously read. 

FIRST YEAR 

Poems for memorizing: Die Lorelei, Heidenroslein, Das zer- 
brochene Ringlein, or others of similar length and character. 

Texts for reading: 
Andersen. Bilderbuch ohne Bilder 
Benedix. Eigensinn 
Biblische. Geschichten 
Campe. Robinson der Jiingere 

Frommel. Eingeschneit mit Ranzel und Wanderstab 
Grimm. Kinder und Hausmarchen, viz, Rotkappchen, Dorn- 
roslein, Schneewittchen, Hansel und Gretel, Aschenputtel 
Meissner. Aus meiner Welt 
Stokl. Unter dem Christbaum 

During the second year the work should comprise: (i) the read- 
ing of from 150 to 200 pages of literature in the form of easy 
stories and plays. Such reading matter can be found in well- 
graded readers and in the texts suggested below, but selection 
from a considerable number of these is to be preferred to the read- 
ing of only a few in entirety; (2) accompanying practice, as before, 
in the translation into German of easy variations upon the matter 
read, and also in the of¥hand reproduction, sometimes orally and 
sometimes in writing, of the substance of short and easy selected 
passages; (3) continued drill upon the rudiments of grammar, 
directed to the end of enabling the pupil to use his knowledge with 
facility in the formation of sentences. 

SECOND YEAR 

Poems for memorizing: Erlkonig, Die Wacht am Rhein, die 
Grenadiere, or others of similar length and character. 
4 



52 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Texts for reading: 
Arnold. Fritz auf Ferien 
Baumbach. Im Zwielicht. Waldnovellen 
Ebner-Eschenbach, Krambambuli 
Eichendorff. Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts 
Gerstacker. Germelshausen. Irrfahrten 
Hauff. Das kalte Herz. Die Karawane 
Hillern. Hoher als die Kirche 
Leander. Kleine Geschichten. Traumereien 
Messiner. Aus deutschen Landen. 
Moser und Heiden. Kopnickerstrasse 120 
Miiller. Im Wartesalon erster Klasse 
Riehl. Burg Neideck. Die vierzehn Nothelfer 
Rosegger. Waldheimat 
Schiller. Der Neffe als Onkel 
Seidel. Der Lindenbaum. Die Monate. Herr Omnia. Lebe- 

recht Hiihnchen 
Storm. Geschichten aus der Tonne. St. Jiirgen. Immensee. 
Wildenbruch. Das edle Blut. Der Letzte 
Wilhelmi. Finer muss Heiraten. 
Zschokke. Der zerbrochene Krug. Das Abenteuer der Neu- 

jahrsnacht 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the third year the pupil should be able to read at 
sight German prose or poetry of ordinary difficulty ; to put into 
German a connected passage of simple English ; to write an idio- 
matic German letter ; to answer any grammatical questions relating 
to usual forms and essential principles of the language, including 
syntax, word formation and cognates ; and to translate and explain 
a passage taken from some text not more difficult than those recom- 
mended for reading during the year. 

Work to be done 
The work should comprise, in addition to the elementary course, 
the reading of about 400 pages of moderately difficult prose and 
poetry, with continued practice in paraphrases, abstracts and repro- 
ductions ; also grammatical drill upon the less usual strong verbs, 
the uses of articles, cases, auxiliaries of all kinds, tenses and modes 



GERMAN 



53 



(with special reference to the infinitive and subjunctive), and Hke- 
wise upon word order, word formation and cognates. 

THIRD YEAR 

For memorizing : the usual familiar quotations from texts selected 
for reading. 

Texts for reading: 
Baumbach. Der Schwiegersohn 
Chamisso. Peter Schlemihl 
Ebner-Eschnerbach. Lotti, die Uhrmacherin 
Frenssen. Jorn Uhl. (Selections) 
Freytag. Die Journalisten. Soil und Haben 
Goethe. Hermann und Dorothea. Dichtung und Wahreit. 

(Selections) 
Hauff. Lichtenstein 
Heine. Die Harzreise 
Hoffman. Meister Martin, der Kiifner 
Lessing. Minna von Barnhelm 
Lillienkron. Anno 1870 
Ludwig. Zwischen Himmel und Erde 
Moltke. Die beiden Freunde 
Morike. Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag 
Moser. Der Bibliothekar 
Riehl. Das Spielmannskind. Der Fluch der Schonheit. Der 

stumme Ratsherr 
Scheffel. Der Trompeter von Sakkingen 
Schiller. Die Jungfrau von Orleans. Wilhelm Tell 

3 Advanced requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the fourth year the student should be able to read 
any German literature of the last 150 years that is free from 
unusual textual difficulties ; to put into German a passage of simple 
English prose ; to answer in German questions relating to the lives 
and works of great writers studied, and to write in German a short, 
independent theme upon some assigned topic. 

Work to be done 
The work of the advanced course should comprise the reading 
of about 500 or 600 pages of good literature in prose and poetry, 
supplementary readings upon the lives and works of the prominent 



54 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

classical writers, the writing in German of numerous short themes 
upon assigned topics, translation of more difficult English into 
German. 

FOURTH YEAR 

Texts for reading: 
Biedermann. Deutsche Bildungszustande im achtzehnten Jahr- 

hundert 
Dahn. Ein Kampf um Rom. (Selections) 
Freytag. Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit. (Selections, 

such as Aus dem Staat Friederichs des Grossen, Aus den 

Kreuzziigen, Karl der Grosse) 
Fulda. Der Talisman 
German Orations 
German Scientific Prose 
Goethe. Iphigenie auf Tauris. Egmont 
Grillparzer. Der Traum, ein Leben. Die Ahnfrau 
Keller. Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe 
Kleist. Prinz von Homburg 
Korner. Zriny 
Lessing. Nathan der Weise 
Schiller. Das Lied von der Glocke. Gustav Adolf in Deutsch- 

land. Maria Stuart. Wallensteins Tod 
Wildenbruch. Harold 
Selections from the poems of Schiller, Goethe, Uhland and Heine 

FRENCH 

I Elementary requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the elementary course, the pupil should be able to 
pronounce French accurately, to read at sight easy French prose, 
to put into French simple English sentences taken from the lan- 
guage of everyday life, or based upon a portion of the text read, 
and to answer questions on the rudiments of the grammar as de- 
fined below. 

Work to be done 
The work of the first year should comprise: 

1 Careful drilling in pronunciation. 

2 The rudiments of grammar, including the inflection of the 
regular and the more common irregular verbs, the plural of nouns. 



FRENCH 55 

the inflection of adjectives, participles, and pronouns; the use of 
personal pronouns, common adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions; 
the order of words in the sentence and the simpler rules of syntax. 

3 Abundant easy exercises, designed not only to fix in the 
memory the forms and principles of grammar, but also to cultivate 
readiness in the reproduction of natural forms ot expression. 

4 The reading of from loo to 175 pages of graduated texts, with 
constant practice in translating into French easy variations of the 
sentences read. 

5 The writing of French from dictation. 
The work of the second year should comprise : 

1 The reading of from 200 to 350 pages of easy modern prose 
in the form of stories, plays, or historical or biographical sketches. 

2 Constant practice, as in the preceding ;^ear, in translation into 
French of easy variations upon the text read. 

3 Frequent abstracts, both oral and written, of portions of the 
texts already read. 

4 The further writing of French from dictation. 

5 Continued drill upon the rudiments of French grammar, with 
constant application in the construction of sentences. 

6 The mastery of the forms and uses of the pronouns and the 
pronominal adjectives, of all but the rare irregular forms of 
verbs, and of the simpler uses of the conditional and the sub- 
junctive moods. 

TEXTS 

For reading and study : 
Erckmann-Chatrian. Le conscrit de 181 3 
Bruno. Le tour de la France 
Mairet. La tache du petit Pierre 
Daudet. Le petit chose 
Malot. Sans famille 
•About. (Short stories) 
Bedolliere. La mere Michel et son chat 
Chateaubriand. Les aventures du dernier Abencerage 
Daudet. (His easier short stories) 
Dumas. Excursions sur les bords du Rhin 
Erckmann-Chatrian. Madame Therese, Waterloo, etc. 
Foa. Contes biographiques, Le petit Robinson de Paris 
Foncin. Le pays de France 
Halevy, L'Abbe Constantin 



56 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Labiche & Martin. La poudre aux yeux, Le voyage de M. 

Perrichon 
Mairet, La clef d'or, L'enfant de la lune 
Legouve & Labiche. La cigale chez les fourmis 
Meilhac & Halevy. L'ete de la St. Martin 
Merimee. Colomba 
Nodier Le chien de Brisquet, etc. 
Sand. La mare au diable 
Schultz. La Neuvaine de Colette 
Verne. (Selected stories) 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the intermediate course, the pupil should be able 
to read at sight ordinary French prose or simple poetry, to translate 
into French a connected passage of English based on the text read, 
and to answer questions involving a more thorough knowledge than 
is expected in the elementary course. 

Work to he done 
The work of the third year should comprise : 

1 The reading of from 350 to 500 pages of French of ordinary 
difficulty, a portion of which should be in the dramatic form. 

2 Constant practice in giving paraphrases, abstracts or reproduc- 
tions from memory of selected portions of the matter read. 

3 The mastery of a grammar of moderate completeness. 

4 Writing from dictation. 

TEXTS 

For reading and study : 

Augier & Sandeau. Le gendre de M. Poirier 

Brete. Mon oncle et mon cure 

Laurie. Memories d'un collegien 

Labiche. La grammaire 

Racine. Esther 

About. La mere de la marquise 

Beranger. (Selected poems) 

Coppee. (Selected poems) 

Daudet. La Belle-Nivernaise, Tartarin de Tarascon 

Dumas. La tulipe noire, Monte Cristo, Les trois mousquetaires 

Hugo. Hernani, La Chute 



FRENCH 57 

Labiche & Delacour. La Cagnotte 

Loti. Pecheur d'Islande 

Michelet. Extracts 

Moliere. L'avare, Le bourgeois gentilhomme 

Sand. La petite Fadette 

Sandeau, Mademoiselle de la Seigliere 

Sarcey. Le siege de Paris 

Scribe. (Plays) 

Mme de Sevigne. (Selected letters) 

Vigny, La canne de jonc 

3 Advanced requirement 

Aim of the instruction 

At the end of the advanced course, the pupil should be able to 
read at sight, with the help of a vocabulary of special or technical 
expressions, difficult French not earlier than that of the 17th cen- 
tury ; to write in French a short essay on some simple topic con- 
nected with the works read ; to put into French a passage of English 
prose of ordinary difficulty, and to carry on a simple conversation 
in French. 

Work to be done 
The work of the fourth year should comprise : 

1 The reading of from 500 to 800 pages of standard French, 
classical and modern, only difficult passages being explained in 
class. 

2 The writing of numerous short themes in French. 

3 The writing of French under rapid dictation. 

4 A thorough study of French syntax. 

TEXTS 

For reading and study : 
Lamartine. Jeanne d'Arc 
Thiers. L'expedition de Bonaparte en figypte 
Racine. Athalie 
Corneille. Le Cid 
Corneille. Horace 

Beaumarchais. Le barbier de Seville 
Corneille. Cinna, Polyeucte 
Dumas. La question d'argent 
La Fontaine. Fables 



58 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Lamartine. Graziella 

Marivaux. (Plays) 

Moliere. Le misanthrope, Les femmes savantes 

Musset. (Selected plays and poems) 

Pellissier. Mouvement litteraire ou XIXe siecle 

Racine. Andromaque, Iphigenie 

Renan. Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse 

Rousseau. (Selected readings) 

Sainte-Beuve. (Selected readings) 

Taine. Les origines de la France contemporaine 

Voltaire. Selections from historical works 

Balzac, Maupassant, Zola, & De Goncourt. (Selections) 

SPANISH 

The requirements in Spanish are in substantial accord with the 
recommendations made for French and German by the committee 
of twelve of the Modern Language Association. 

I Elementary requirement 

Aim of the instruction ■ 
At the end of the elementary course the pupil should be able to 
pronounce Spanish accurately, to read at sight easy Spanish prose, 
to put into Spanish orally and in writing simple English sentences 
and short connected passages based upon the student's daily school 
and home life, pleasures, occupations, American and Spanish cus- 
toms, and the text read, to illustrate by Spanish sentences gram- 
matical points studied, and to answer questions upon the rudiments 
of grammar as defined below. 

Work to he done 

During the first year the work should comprise (i) careful 
phonetic drill in pronunciation; (2) oral instruction in Spanish, 
with simple oral reproduction, in the various phases of the pupil's 
daily school and home life, followed later by written sentences and 
passages, designed to cultivate a readiness in the reproduction of 
natural forms of expression concerning daily doings common to all 
pupils, and to fix in the meniory, without the medium of transla- 
tion, the simpler forms and principles of grammar; (3) the rudi- 
ments of grammar, including the conjugation of the regular and - 
auxiliary verbs and the more common irregular verbs, the inflec- 



SPANISH 59 

tion of nouns, adjectives in their different degrees, and pronouns, 
and the elementary rules of syntax; (4) exercises containing illus- 
trations of the principles of grammar; (5) the reading and accurate 
rendering into good English of about 100 duodecimo pages of 
graduated texts, with translations into Spanish of easy variations of 
the reading matter; (6) writing Spanish from dictation. 

Suitable texts for the first year are : 
Alarcon. Historietas nacionales 
Escrich. Fortuna 
Valera. El pajaro verde 

During the second year the work should comprise (i) the more 
intensive reading of about 250 pages of modern prose from dif- 
ferent authors, at least one fifth of which shall be an easy drama ; 
(2) continued oral instruction, with natural reproduction, in words 
and phrases dealing with the everyday life and customs in America 
and Spain; (3) practice in paraphrasing the texts read, and English 
variations of the texts translated into Spanish; (4) continued 
study of grammar forms and the elements of syntax; (5) mastery 
of all but the rare irregular verb forms and of the simpler uses of 
the modes and tenses ; (6) translation of sentences and short con- 
nected passages from English into Spanish, to fix and elaborate the 
principles of grammar as studied. 

Suitable texts for the second year are : 
Alarcon. El capitan Veneno 
Carrion y Aza. Zaragiieta 
Echegaray. C locura 6 santidad 
Galdos. Doiia Perfecta 
Padre Isla. Gil Bias 
Tamayo y Baus. Lo positivo 
Valdes. Jose, La alegria del capitan Ribot 

2 Intermediate requirement 

Aim of the instruction 
At the end of the intermediate course the pupil should be able 
to read at sight ordinary Spanish prose or simple poetry; to trans- 
late into Spanish a connected passage of English based on the text 
read and the language of everyday life; to understand readily easy 
spoken Spanish ; and to answer questions involving a more thor- 
ough knowledge of syntax than is expected in the elementary course. 



6o THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Work to he done 

This should comprise the reading of between 400 and 500 pages 
of Spanish of ordinary difficulty, a portion to be in the dramatic 
form; outhne of Spanish literature; constant practice in giving 
Spanish paraphrases, abstracts or reproductions of the matter read; 
the study of grammar of moderate completeness, including the 
syntax of the modes and tenses ; the writing of business forms and 
commercial correspondence; considerable practice in spoken 
Spanish. 

Suitable texts are : 

Alarcon. El niho de la bola 

Becquer. Poemas 

Cervantes, Don Quijote 

Campoamor. Poemas 

Espronceda. Poemas 

Fernan Caballero. La familia de Alvareda 

Galdos. Electra, Marianela 

Gutierrez. El trovador 

Herrera. c'Quien es ella? 

Moratin. El si de las niiias 

Nunez de Arce. El haz de Lena, Poemas 

Pardo Bazan. Pascual Lopez 

Pereda. Pedro Sanchez 

Valera. El comendador Mendoza, Pepita Jimenez 

ITALIAN 

The requirements in Italian are in substantial accord with 
the requirements in French, German and Spanish. 

Elementary requirements 

Aim of the instruction. At the end of the elementary course 
in Italian the pupil should be able to pronounce Italian ac- 
curately with careful attention to the phonetic variations be- 
tween English and Italian sounds, to read understandingly at 
sight easy Italian prose and translate the same into good Eng- 
lish, to put into Italian either orally or in writing sentences and 
short connected passages based upon the student's daily school 
and home life, pleasures, occupations, American and Italian 
customs, to put into Italian sentences illustrating grammatical 



ITALIAN 6 1 

points studied and to answer questions upon the rudiments of 
grammar as defined below. 

Work to be done. During the first year the work should 
comprise (i) careful phonetic drill on pronunciation; (2) oral 
instruction in Italian with simple oral reproduction in the 
various phases of the pupil's daily school and home life, followed 
later by written sentences and passages designed to cultivate a 
readiness in the reproduction of common forms of expression 
concerning daily experiences of all pupils; (3) rudiments of 
grammar, including inflection of articles, articles with preposi- 
tions, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles, and verbs with 
special attention to the regular verbs and to the more common 
irregular verbs; comparison of adjectives and adverbs; use of the 
more common prepositions and conjunctions ; order of words in the 
sentence and the elementary rules of syntax; (4) abundant easy 
exercises designed to fix in the pupil's mind the forms and principles 
of grammar with natural application to everyday expression; (5) 
the reading and the accurate rendering into good English of from 
100 to 175 duodecimo pages of graduated texts with some free 
reproduction of the same, together with accurate Italian translations 
of English paraphrases of the texts read, the instructor giving the 
English. 

Suitable texts for first year 
Selections of easy Italian stories or elementary Italian reader. 

De Amicis. Cuore 

Silvio Pellico. Le mie prigioni (Selections) 

Thouar P. Selected stories 

During the second year the work should comprise (i) con- 
tinued oral instruction in words and phrases dealing with the 
eyeryday life and customs in America and Italy; (2) the in- 
tensive reading of about 250 to 400 pages of easy modern prose 
in the form of stories, biographies and dramas; (3) constant 
practice, as in the previous year, in oral and written paraphrases 
of the texts read with frequent abstracts in Italian; (4) writing 
Italian from dictation; (5) continued and more intensive drill 
on grammatical forms, uses of subjunctive and of infinitive, 
elements of syntax, together with a mastery of all but the most 
unusual irregular verbs in all their forms; (6) translation of 
sentences and short connected passages from English into 
Italian to fix and elaborate the principles of grammar as studied : 
(7) memorization of easy short poems, proverbs or other brief 
selections of special merit. 



62 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Suitable texts for second year 

Barrili, La spada di fuoco, Fior di mughetto 

Castelnuovo. Fuochi di paglia, O bare o afifogare 

De Amicis. Spagna, Orlanda 

Ferrari. Antonietta in collegio, II perdono 

Giacosa. Una partita a scacchi, Acquazzoni in montagna, 

Affari di banca 
Goldoni. Un curioso accidente, La locandiera, II vero amico 
Manzoni. I promessi sposi (Easier selections) 
Rossi. L'ultima scoperta 
Testa. L'oro e Torpello 



GROUP II 

MATHEMATICS 
Advanced arithmetic Plane geometry 

Elementary algebra Solid geometry 

Intermediate algebra Trigonometry 

Advanced algebra 

In September 1902 the American Mathematical Society appointed 
a special committee to prepare standard formulations of college 
entrance requirements in mathematics in cooperation with com- 
mittees already appointed by the Society for the Promotion of 
Engineering Education and by the National Educational Associa- 
tion. During the two succeeding years the committee devoted a 
great amount of time and energy to the work assigned them. After 
taking due account of previous work along similar lines and of 
existing conditions in the mathematical instruction of colleges and 
secondary schools, and after consulting the several interests con- 
cerned, they prepared a report which has been approved by various 
associations of teachers of mathematics and boards of examiners. 
This report has received the unqualified indorsement of a com- 
mittee representing the Associated Academic Principals of the 
State of New York and accordingly has been adopted by the 
Education Department. To this report, however, some detailed 
suggestions in algebra and trigonometry have been added and 
likewise a syllabus for a course of study in advanced arithmetic. 

The order in which the subjects and the topics under them are 
presented does not necessarily imply any preference as to the order 
of teaching either the subjects or the topics. 

ADVANCED ARITHMETIC 

This subject should be taken after the student has completed the 
•courses in algebra and plane geometry. Special attention should 
be given to the theory of arithmetical processes, to clearness of 
analysis, and to facility and accuracy of computation. The fol- 
.lowing outline will indicate the scope of the examination. 

I The fundamental operations with integers and fractions 
(common and decimal). This involves the following: full ex- 
planation of the theory of the different operations ; abridged 
processes in common use ; devices for proving the correctness of 

63 



64 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

operations, e. g. " the casting out of nines " ; multiples of and 
divisibility of numbers; factoring; least common multiple; greatest 
icommon divisor, including proof by division; square root; cube 
root. 

2 Tables and their use. This involves : the money tables of the 
United States, Great Britain, Germany and France; the tables of 
weights and measures in common use (troy and apothecary's tables 
excluded); the metric system; reduction of denominate numbers; 
longitude and time. 

3 Percentage. Under this are involved the principles and prob- 
lems of simple and compound interest; discount (bank and trade) ; 
present worth ; stocks arwl bonds ; taxes, duties and customs ; com- 
mission and brokerage ; partial payments computed by the United 
States rule ; investments showing loss or gain. 

Intricate problems in compound interest, true discount, average 
of accounts, alligation, duodecimals and partnership involving time 
will not be included in the examinations. 

4 Ratio and proportion. The principles of ratio and propor- 
tion with their applications should be thoroughly taught, but in- 
volved problems in compound proportion will not be a part of the 
examinations. 

5 Mensuration. This should cover mensuration of the triangle, 
parallelogram, trapezoid, regular polygons, the circle, prism, cylin- 
der, sphere, pyramids and their frustums, cones and their frustums ; 
the applications of the principles of mensuration to measurement 
of the areas of fields, to cubic contents of tanks, bins, embank- 
ments, etc. 

6 Series. Arithmetical and geometric with their applications. 

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 
The four fundamental operations for rational algebraic expres- 
sions 
Thorough treatment of these operations requires 

1 The ability to formulate necessary definitions in clear, 
concise language 

2 The ability to represent quantities and to indicate mathe- 
matical relations and operations by means of algebraic 
symbols, and to translate symbolic expressions into words, 
including 

a The algebraic representation of (i) even numbers, (2) 
odd numbers, (3) numbers in decimal notation, (4) 
common fractions 



ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA 65 

b Removing symbols of aggregation from given expressions, 
and inserting specified terms of a polynomial within such 
symbols with facility and accuracy 
Examples free from ingenious repetition of complications 

should be selected for practice. 

3 The ability to add or subtract monomials or polynomials 
having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents, 
with special attention to like terms having polynominal 
literal coefficients ; e.g. {a-{-b ).v and {2b -{- c)x etc. 

4 Ability to find the product of monomials or polynomials 
having either numerical or literal coefficients and exponents. 

and to write by inspection the expanded forms of particular 
cases of (ax -\- b)^; (a -\- b -\- c)-; (ax -\- b) (ax-b) ; 
(x + a) (x + b) and (ax + b) (ex + d) 

5 Ability to find the quotient of (a) a monomial divided by 
a monomial, (b) a polynomial divided by a monomial or a 
polynomial, the coefficients and exponents m both cases being 
either numerical or literal, (c) a" zt b"' divided by o ± & 

Factoring 

Facility in factoring involves 

1 The recognition of a monomial factor whenever present 

2 Familiarity with the factors of 

a Binomial x" ± 3'" where m=: 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 in case of the 

negative sign and 3, 5 or 6 in case of the positive sign 
b Trinomial forms ( i ) a~" zt 2a"b" -\- b"^^ ; (2) ax''- -\- bx 

-\-c; (3) a^ -\- a^b^ -i- b^ 
c Polynomial forms (i) a.r -|- ^'^' + ^3' + ^3' : (-) simple 
polynomials of the third or fourth degree by the factor 
theorem 
Application of the principles of factoring in finding the highest 
common factor and the lowest common multiple 
A clear form of presentation of written work is of vital iiTi- 
portance here. Emphasis should be laid upon obtaining prime 
literal factors of each given expression as a preliminary step. 
Attention should be drawn to the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of ex- 
pressions containing factors dififering only in sign ; e.g. i-x^ and 
,r--i. 
Fractions, including complex fractions 

1 Reduction by factoring 

2 Multiplication and division of fractions 

3 Addition and subtraction with the manipulation of signs neces- 
sary to obtain the lowest common denominator 



66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

4 Changing a given fraction to a mixed expression; a mixed 
expression to a fraction 

5 Complex fractions of an easy type. Continued fractions are 
to be omitted. 

Ratio 

1 Necessary definitions 

2 A ratio of greater inequality is diminished and a ratio of less 
inequality is increased by adding the same quantity to both 
its terms. 

3 In a series of equal ratios, the sum of all the antecedents is to 
the sum of all the consequents as any antecedent is to its 
consequent. 

Proportion 

1 Necessary definitions 

2 If four quantities are in proportion, the product of the ex- 
tremes is equal to the product of the means and conversely. 

3 Transformations that may be made in a proportion by inver- 
sion, alternation, composition and division. 

Emphasis should be given to practical applications. 
Solutions of examples under this heading are practically 
worthless if written down without explanation. 
Simple equations both numerical and literal containing one or 
more unknown quantities 
The usual work under this heading should be supplemented by 

1 The solution for any letter in the simpler formulas of 
physics in terms of the others, finding where necessary re- 
sults to two decimal places 

2 Problems depending on simple equations 

See remark under " Problems involving quadratic equations." 
Radicals 

1 Necessary definitions 

2 Reduction (a) to simplest form; (&) to same order; (c) to 
entire-surd 

3 Convention with respect to taking only positive sign 

4 Four fundamental operations for surds 

5 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is 
a monomial surd of any order 

6 Rationalization of the denominator of a fraction when it is a 
binomial quadratic surd 

7 Square root of polynomial algebraic expressions 

8 Square root of numbers expressed arithmetically to two deci- 
mal places when not exact 

9 Radical equations 



INTERMEDIATE ALGERRA dj 

Quadratic equations both numerical and literal 

1 Solution of the pure quadratic 

2 Solution of the affected quadratic, (a) by completing the 
square, ((^) by factoring, (c) by formula 

Sufficient practice should be given in finding the numerical 
values of roots to two places of decimals 

3 Equations of quadratic form involving one unknown quantity 

4 Radical equations resulting in quadratics 

Sufficient practice should be given in finding the numerical 
values of roots to two decimal places. 
Simple cases of equations with two or more unknown quantities 
that can be solved by the methods of simple or quadratic 
equations 

1 One simple equation, one of second degree 

2 Two homogeneous equations of the second degree 

3 Symmetric equations of the third or fourth degree readily 
solvable by dividing the variable member of one by the variable 
member of the other; e.g. .r-f-y=:5, x'^-^'f^ 35 

Good training at this point of a student's work should lead 
him to consider the possibility of some combination of the given 
equations resulting in simpler forms before employing a general 
routine method for the special case before him. Values obtained 
for the variables should be properly associated in presenting 
written answers. 
Problems involving quadratic equations 

It is assumed that students will be required throughout the 
course to solve numerous problems which involve putting ques- 
tions into equations. Some of these problems should be chosen 
from mensuration, from physics, and from commercial trans- 
actions. 
Binomial theorem for positive integral exponents 

Application of the theorem to the case of positive integral ex- 
ponents 

INTERMEDIATE ALGEBRA 
This will include a thorough review of the elementary algebra 
together with the following additional topics : 

a a 

Interpretation of the forms . ^ 

00 

Imaginaries 

Four fundamental operations for imaginary (not complex) 
numbers 
5 



68 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exponents 

1 Proof of (a) a"*. a^ = a'^+Q^ m and q positive integers 

(b) am-i-a^= am-q, m and q positive integers 
(c), (a"'')*=a"**, m and q positive integers 

2 Meaning of negative integral exponent 

3 Meaning of the fractional exponent 

4 Meaning of zero exponents 

5 Involution and evolution of rational and surd monomials 
Facility and accuracy in application of the principles of the 

theory of indices may better be acquired in solving a large 
number of simple exercises than by struggling with compara- 
tively few but very involved examples. 
Evolution 

1 Square root of a binomial quadratic surd 

2 Cube root of polynomials 

3 Cube root of numbers 
Quadratic equations 

Theory of quadratic equations, (i) Two and only two roots. 
(2) Relations between roots and coefficients of terms. (3) 
Formatioa of an equation from two given roots. (4) Values 
of very simple expressions symmetric in the roots of a given 
quadratic. (5) Nature of the roots of a quadratic 
Progressions, arithmetical and geometric 
Arithmetical 

I Proof that with the usual notation /=a+(w-i)c? 
2 Proof that with the usual notation 
n n 

s= — {a-\-l)^^{2a-\-{n-i) d) 
2 2 

Applications depending on these formulas 
Geometric 

1 Proof that with the usual notation l=ar"-'- 

a(i-r«) 

2 Proof that with the usual notation .y^ ■ — 

i-r 
a 

3 Proof that with the usual notation ^-^ for an infinite 



i-r 



series, r<i 
Applications depending on these formulas 



PLANE GEOMETRY 69 

Binomial theorem. Review including the finding of the r"' term 
Graphic interpretation of equations 

1 Construction of the graphs of statistics and of numerical 
equations both simple and quadratic 

2 Determination of the roots of simultaneous numerical equa- 
tions, both simple and quadratic, having two variables, by the 
graphic method 

PLANE GEOMETRY 
The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- 
ing the general properties of plane rectilineal figures ; the circle and 
the measurement of angles; similar polygons; areas; regular poly- 
gons and the measurement of the circle. The subjects of maxima, 
minima and symmetry may be omitted. 

Proofs of propositions should be distinguished as direct, indirect 
or by exclusion. Students should be trained in each style of 
argument. 

Original propositions. Good training in plane geometry should 
enable students to solve readily at sight the simpler kinds of 
original exercises including loci problems and the applications of 
principles to the mensuration of lines and plane surfaces. At- 
tention should be paid to the algebraic solution of problems in 
construction. 

It should be remembered always that students may acquire facil- 
ity in solution more readily by solving a large number of very 
simple exercises than by attempting a small number of exercises 
of a difficult character. 

Exercises in geometry may be classed under three headings : 
I Theorems; II Problems; III Numerical exercises. 
Theorems for which sight proofs are demanded should be 

1 Such as may be proved by applications of very few — pre- 
ferably not more than two — - fundamental princii)les, i. e. text- 
presented theorems 

2 Such as require a very limited use of auxiliary lines 

3 Such as may be stated briefly and clearly and be easily com- 
prehended 

Exercises in simple forms of indirect proofs should be given. 
Problems of construction should require 

1 The combination of very few — preferably not more than 
two — of the usual book-demonstrated problems 

2 Locus constructions using two simple loci 

3 A .very limited discussion and such discussion should be sug- 
gested by questions. 



70 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Numerical exercises should be of a simple character and require 
application of any of the ordinary principles of plane geometry 
in combination with those of arithmetic or algebra. 

SOLID GEOMETRY 

The usual theorems and constructions of good textbooks, includ- 
ing the relations of planes and lines in space; the properties and 
measurement of prisms, pyramids, cylinders and cones; the sphere 
and the spherical triangle. 

The demonstration of original propositions and the solution of 
numerous problems, including loci problems. 

Applications of principles to the mensuration of surfaces and 
solids. 

TRIGONOMETRY 
Definitions and relations of the six trigonometric functions as 
ratios; circular measurement of angles 

Thorough treatment of this topic should include 

1 Consideration of the functions of complementary angles 

2 Consideration of the functions of supplementary angles 

3 Familiarity with the expression of the trigonometric func- 
tions as lines in order that the student may readily trace 
changes in sign and magnitude of a function as the angle 
varies, and extend the definitions of the trigonometric func- 
tions to angles of any magnitude 

4 The derivation of the values of the six trigonometric func- 
tions for angles of 30°, 45°, 60° 

Proofs of principal formulas in particular for the sine, cosine and 
tangent of the sum and the difference of two angles, of the 
double angle and the half angle, the product expressions for the 
sum or difference of two sines or of two cosines, etc.; the trans- 
formation of trigonometric expressions by means of these 
formulas 
Solution of trigonometric equations of a simple character 
Theory and use of logarithms (without the introduction of work 
involving infinite series) 
The use of five place tables is recommended. 

1 Clear definitions 

2 Proof that the logarithm of a product = sum of logarithms of 
its factors 

3 Proof that the logarithm of a quotient = difference between 
the logarithm of the dividend and that of the divisor 



ADVANCED ALGEBRA 7 1 

4 Proof that the logarithm of a power of a number is found by 
multiplying the logarithm of the number by the exponent of 
the power 

5 Ready use of tables of common logarithms ; facility in inter- 
polation and use of the cologarithm. Applications to finding 
the values of surd expressions and the functions of given 
angles, etc. 

6 Solution of simple exponential equations 

The solution of right and oblique triangles, plane and spherical, 
and practical applications 

1 Derivation of formulas relative to right spherical triangles 

2 Derivation of formulas used in solving the oblique plane 
triangle 

ADVANCED ALGEBRA 

The course in advanced algebra should cover a thorough review 
of all the topics in elementary algebra and intermediate algebra, 
with more dilificult applications than can be expected in the earlier 
study of those courses, together with the following additional topics : 

Permutations and combinations limited to simple cases 

1 Necessary definitions and meaning of symbols in general use 

2 Derivation of the formula for the permutations of n dissimilar 
things taken r at a time 

3 Derivation of the formula for the number of permutations of 
n things, taken all together, when p are of one kind, q of 
another, etc. 

4 Derivation of the formula for the number of combinations of 
n dissimilar things, r together 

5 Proof of the theorem that the number of combinations of » 
dissimilar things r at a time is equal to the number of com- 
binations of 7? dissimilar things n-r at a time 

6 Investigation of the value of r which gives the greatest number 
of combinations of w things r at a time 

7 Exercises depending for solution upon any of the foregoing 
formulas or principles 

Complex numbers with graphic representation of sums and 
differences 
I Graphic representation of complex numbers and of their sums 
and differences 



72 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Determinants, chiefly of the second, third and fourth orders 
including the use of minors and the solution of simple 
equations 

1 Necessary definitions and meaning of the notation in general 
use 

2 Fundamental principles of determinants 

3 Expansion of determinants of the second, third and fourth 
orders by general methods 

4 Determination of the sign of any particular term 

5 Evaluation of determinants by special devices suitable to the 
case under consideration 

6 The solution of simple simuhaneous equations by the aid of 
determinants 

Theory of equations 

1 Divisibility of equations 

2 Number of roots 

3 Formation of an equation from given roots 

4 Commensurable roots 

5 Composition of coefficients 

6 Fractional roots 

7 Imaginary roots 

8 Transformation 

a Of an equation having fractional coefficients into another in 

which the coefficients are integral, that of the first term 

being unity 
& Of a complete equation into one in which the second term 

is wanting 
c Of an equation into another in which the roots shall be some 

multiple of the roots of the first or shall dififer from those 

of the first by a given quantity 

9 Descartes's rule of signs 
lo Derived polynomials 

Solution of higher numerical equations 

1 Horner's method of approximation to the roots of a numerical 
equation 

2 Graphs of equations and graphic representations of roots 



GROUP III 

SCIENCE 

PHYSICAL SCIENCE ^ 

Physics Chemistry 

PHYSJCS 

Topical syllabus in physics 

The course of instruction in physics should include : 

1 Individual laboratory work consisting of experiments re- 
quiring approximately 30 double periods. Each student should 
perform at least 30 experiments not very different from such as 
may be selected from the appended list. 

2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations to be used 
mainly as a basis for questioning upon the general principles of 
physics and their applications. 

3 The study of at least one standard textbook to the end that 
the ' student may gain a comprehensive and connected view of 
the more important facts and laws of elementary physics. 

Throughout the course especial attention should be paid to 
the common illustrations of physical laws and to their industrial 
applications. 

Whenever the solution of numerical problems is required, the 
student should be encouraged to make use of the principles of 
algebra and geometry to reduce the difficulty of solution. 

It is understood that all numerical problems should be very 
simple. 

I Introduction 
A Metric system 

Linear measure, units : meter, centimeter, millimeter 

Square measure : centimeter only 

Cubic measure : cubic centimeter and liter 

Kilogram, gram and decimal parts representing mass and 

weight 
Ratios : 2.54. 39.37, 2.2 

' In the preparation of the syllabuses in physics and chemistry valuable assistance has been 
rendered by teachers representing the Associated Academic Principals, New York State Science 
Teachers Association and the High School Teachers Association of New York City. 

7?> 



74 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

B Definitions : volume, mass, w^eight, density 
C Masses of equal volumes are directly proportional to dens- 
ity. 
Volumes of equal masses are inversely proportional to 
density. 
D States of matter 

Defined and explained 
(Kinetic theory of matter) 
E Properties of matter 

1 Tenacity 

2 Surface tension 

3 Capillarity 

4 Ductility 

5 Malleability 
II Hydrostatics 

A Pascal's law 

Problems on hydrostatic press, areas given, lever omitted. 
Hydraulic elevator 
B Gravity pressure 
Varying depth 
" area 

" density of liquids 
• " direction 
" shape of vessel 
Communicating vessels 
Problems limited to rectangular areas 
C Laws of buoyancy 

1 Principle of Archimedes 

2 Laws of flotation 

3 Problems 

D Specific gravity 

1 Definition 

2 Methods are applications of principles stated in I C 

above 

3 Specific gravity of solids 

a Bodies heavier than water (weighing in air and in 

water) 
b Bodies lighter than water (sinker method only) 
c Problems 

4 Specific gravity of liquids 
a Bottle method 



PHYSICS 75 

b Buib method 

c By balancing columns 

d By hydrometer 

e Problems 

III Pneumatics 

Gas pressure is due to (i) gravity, (2) molecular motion. 
A Atmospheric pressure 

1 Evidences of (qualitative) 

2 Measurement by barometer 

B Pressure due to molecular motion 

Boyle's law 
C Applications 

Pumps 

Air pumps (mechanical only) 

Lifting pump 

Force pump, air dome included 

Siphon 

IV Statics of solids 

A General conditions of equilibrium. (Two kinds of motion, 
rotary and translatory, must be prevented.) 

B Simplest case of equilibrium, two forces only 
Definition of resultant and equilibrant 

C Equilibrium of three parallel forces. Show the following 
facts : 

1 Two forces in one direction, and one in the opposite 
direction 

2 The opposing force is between the other two. 

3 The opposing force equals the sum of the other two. 

4 Any two of the forces are inversely proportional to their 
distances from the third force. 

5 Problems 

D Moment of a force defined and explained 
E Equilibrium of any number of parallel forces 

Problems 
F General law of gravitation 

Weight : a special case, the earth being one of the two 
bodies attracting each other 

1 Causes of variation of weight 

2 Weight of a body defined as the resultant of the gravitation 
of the parts of the body 

3 Weight is proportional to mass. 



76 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

G Center of gravity 

1 Defined as the point of application of the force called 
weight 

2 C. of G. determined 

3 Problems 

. H States of equilibrium 
Stable 
Unstable 
Neutral 
/ Equilibrium of three concurrent forces 

1 Parallelogram 

2 Resolution of forces (rectangular components only) 

3 Problems 
V Kinetics 

A Define force, motion, velocity 
B Uniform motion 

1 Newton's first law : inertia 

2 Problems 

C Variable motion 

1 Define acceleration 

2 Uniformly accelerated motion (if initial or final velocity is 

zero) 
Problems 

3 Falling bodies (a = 5' ^980 or 32) a special case 
D I Momentum defined. Rate of change of momentum 

2 Newton's second law, " A force is measured by the change 
in momentum produced in unit time." f = ma or ft^mv 

3 Unit force gives to a unit mass a unit acceleration. 

•4 Weight of unit mass = 980 CGS units of force or 32 FPS 

units 
E Newton's third law. To every action there is an equal and 

opposite reaction. 
F I Work defined, and formula, Work = FL 

Problems 

2 Energy defined 

3 Units of work and of energy, erg and foot pound only, 
= Unit force acting through unit distance 

G I Law of conservation of energy 
2 Kinds of energy 

a Potential energy defined and determined as equal to FL 
from law of conservation of energy 



PHYSICS ']'J 

b Kinetic energy defined 
Problems 
H Power defined 

Unit of power defined 
Problems 
/ Machines, mechanical advantage, (problems), mechanical 
efficiency defined and discussed. (Use terms effort and 
resistance) 
J Lever, wheel and axle 

Problems 
K Pulley 

1 Single fixed 

2 Single movable 

3 Any number of pulleys with a continuous cord 
Problems 

L Inclined plane. (Efifort parallel to incline) 

Problems 
M Curvilinear motion : centripetal force qualitatively illus- 
trated 
A^ Laws of simple pendulum 

1 As to amplitude of vibration 

2 As to weight of bob 

3 As to length of pendulum 
Problems 

VI Heat 

A Heat defined from standpoint of kinetic theory 

B Temperature defined from standpoint of law of exchange 

C Measurement of temperature 

1 Construction of mercury and glass thermometer explained 

2 Graduation of a thermometer and location of fixed points 

3 Reduction of C and F thermometer scales 
Problems 

4 Limitations of li([uid thermometers " • 

5 Metallic thermometers 
a Compound bar 

b Expansion of a wire 

6 Air thermometer : simplest form 
D Sources of heat 

1 Sun 

2 Interior of earth 

3 Chemical change 



78 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

4 Friction 

5 Impact 

6 Compression 

7 Electricity 

E Transmission or diffusion of heat 

1 Conduction "^ 

2 Convection y Defined and discussed 

3 Radiation J 
F Effects of heat 

1 Expansion 
a Of soHds 

Coefficient of linear expansion 
h Expansion of liquids — anomalous expansion of water 
c Expansion of gases 

Law of Charles 

Absolute zero 
Problems 

2 Change of state 
a Fusion 

h Vaporization, (i) Boiling. (2) Evaporation 

3 Rise of temperature 
a Calorie defined 

h Law of exchange of heat 
c Specific heat defined and determined 
Problems 
G I Heat of fusion defined and determined 
Problems 
2 Heat of vaporization defined and determined 
Problems 
H Heat and work 

1 Joule's equivalent 

2 Simple noncondensing steam engine 

3 Gas engine, four cycle only 
VII Sound 

A Origin of sound 

B Propagation of sound waves 

1 Amplitude of wave and loudness 

2 Length of wave and pitch 

3 Form of wave and quality or timbre 

4 Velocity of sound 

C Reflection of sound, echoes 



PHYSICS 79 

D Resonance 

E Interference of sound, beats 

F Harmony and discord 

G Transverse vibration of rods or bars free at one end (efifect 

of length) 
// Vibralion of strings (effect of length, tension, and mass 

per 'J nit cf length) 
/ Pitch of open and closed pipes 
VIII Light 

A Discussion of radiant energy 

1 The ether 

2 Transverse waves 

3 Wave length 

4 Light waves contrasted with heat waves as to 
a Wave length 

b Effects 

5 Velocity of light 
B Definitions 

Light, luminous bodies, illuminated bodies, transparent, 
translucent and opaque bodies 
C Rectilinear propagation of light in a homogeneous medium 

1 Shadows 

2 Pinhole camera 
D Photometry 

1 Intensity of light (source) and intensity of illumination 
distinguished 

2 Law of inverse squares 

3 Bunsen photometer 

4 Problems 
E Reflection 

1 Law of reflection 

2 Regular 

3 Irregular (visibility of illuminated objects) 

4 Plane mirrors, position and character of image 
F Refraction 

1 Definition 

2 Explanation 

3 Index of refraction 

4 Laws of refraction 

5 Total reflection 

a Critical angle defined 



80 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

6 Refraction by parallel-sided plates 

7 Refraction by prisms 

8 Lenses 

a Definition 

b Classification 

c Definitions of focus, conjugate focuses, principal focus, 

center of curvature, optical center, principal axis, 

secondary axis 

9 Position and character of images formed by converging 
and diverging lenses 

10 Real and virtual images defined 

11 Graphical determination of size and position of images 
formed by lenses 

III 

12 Problems. — = 1 

F D„ D, 

13 S, :S-::D„ :Dj 

Sq and Sj = diameters of object and image. 

IX Magnetism and electricity 
A Magnets, magnetic substance 

B Magnets, natural and artificial ; permanent and temporary 
C Polarity. Laws of magnetic force 

1 As to like and unlike poles 

2 As to distance between poles 
Problems 

D Magnetic induction and molecular theory of magnetism 
E Magnetic fields and lines of magnetic force defined and dis- 
cussed 
F Terrestrial magnetism evidenced by 

1 Magnetic compass 

2 Magnetic declination 

3 Dip 

4 Magnetic induction of the earth 

X Current electricity 

A Action in simple cell 

1 Chemical changes 

2 Theory of the production of difference of potential 

3 Local action and polarization 
B Daniell cell 

C Effects of current (qualitatively illustrated) 
I Magnetic 
a Electromagnet 



PHYSICS 51 

b Relation between direction of current and direction of 
magnetic lines of force 

2 Heating 

a Fuse wire 

b Electric heater 

3 Chemical 

a Electrolysis of water 
b Electroplating 
c Storage cell 
D Electrical quantities and units 

1 E.M.F. : volt 

2 Current : ampere 

3 Resistance : ohm 

4 Power : watt 

5 Kilowatt hour 

E 
E Ohm's law: C = — 
R 
Problems 
F Measuring instruments : galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, 

resistance coils (rheostat) 
G Grouping of cells 

1 Series 

2 Parallel 

Problems, only one method of grouping in each problem 

E 

H Determination of internal resistance of a cell by C = 

R + r 
KL 

/ Laws of resistance of wires: R = 

Problems D- 

/ Joint resistance and current division in a divided circuit 

Problems 
K Fall of potential in a circuit 

Problems 
L Wheatstone's bridge 

Problems 
M Induced E.M.F. 

1 How produced 

2 Intensity 

3 Direction 



82 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

N Simple dynamo two pole field, single rotating loop, alter- 
nating and direct 
Simple electric motor, two pole, H armature 

XI Static electricity 

A Electrification by friction; two kinds of electrification 

B Law of attraction and repulsion ; gold leaf electroscope 

C Conductors and insulators ; electrification by induction 

D Difl:'erence of electric potential of two points 

XII Applications of electricity 

1 Arc lamp 

2 Incandescent lamp 

3 Telegraph 

4 Telephone 

5 Electric bell 

6 Wireless telegraph 

7 Roentgen rays 

Laboratory syllabus in physics 
Notebooks — general directions, i The purpose of each ex- 
periment should be clearly stated in a brief title. 

2 A brief description, usually accompanied by a drawing, 
should show how the experiment was done. Descriptions should 
be expressed in definite and complete sentences, and drawings 
should show the essential parts of the apparatus at the most 
significant part of the experiment. Drawings should be made in 
the form of plain outline diagrams and should aim at simple 
accuracy rather than at artistic finish. 

3 Numerical data should always be recorded in neat tabula- 
tions. 

4 A definite system of recording descriptions, drawings and 
observations should be adopted and adhered to for all experi- 
ments. Statements of reasoning, calculations and conclusions 
should be written out in full._ Conclusions should refer directly 
to the expressed purpose of the experiment and should follow 
from the data and reasoning as clearly and logically as the con- 
clusion of a proposition in geometry follows from the given 
conditions and the proof. 

5 Experiments marked with a * are regarded as fundamental 
and should be included in every laboratory course. The remain- 
ing experiments necessary to complete the minimum require- 
ment may be selected acco-ding to the equipment of the school 
and the judgment of the teacher. 



PHYSICS 



83 



6 Experiments not performed by the student should in gen- 
eral be performed by the teacher as demonstration exercises to 
be observed and discussed by the class. Brief notes of these and 
other demonstration exercises should be taken in class and 
written carefully in the notebooks out of class. Notes of ex- 
periments and of demonstrations should appear together in the 
notebooks in the order in which they are done. They should 
be numbered separately, however, as experiment i, experi- 
ment 2, etc. and demonstration i, demonstration 2, etc. 

7 Every notebook should contain an index at the beginning 
showing the title of each experiment and demonstration, and the 
page on which it may be found. 





INDEX OF EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED 




No. of 
exp. 


Title of experiment 


Page 

































8 When the notebook has been completed the teacher should 

attach the following certificate to the inside of the front cover: 

High School N. Y. 

191 •• 

This notebook contains the original record of work done by 

in the laboratory of the 

High School under my immedi- 
ate supervision. The descriptions, drawings and numerical data 
were recorded in the laboratory at the time when the experi- 
ments were performed. 

[Signed] . . '. 

Teacher of 



9 A student taking the Department s examination must pre- 
pare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his 
answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the 
index must bear ( i ) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it 
is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's 
rating of the laboratory work based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, 
6 



84 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement, 
must be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call 
of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the 
completion of the course. 

10 Schools not equipped to perform as many as 30 experi- 
ments may offer 18 experiments selected from those designated 
by a star. In such cases laboratory work shall be rated on a basis 
of 10 credits for maximum excellence. 

11 Directions for performing experiments are to be regarded 
as suggestive rather than mandatory. It is expected that pro- 
gressive teachers will adapt methods to conditions obtaining 
in their several schools. 

Experiment i* 

MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTHS, AREAS AND VOLUMES 

Measure the various dimensions of a solid, of regular geomet- 
ric shape, in centimeters and in inches. Calculate the areas of 
the several faces in square centimeters and in square inches. 
Calculate the volume of the solid in cubic centimeters and in 
cubic inches. Determine the volume of the solid also by the dis- 
placement of water in a graduate. 

Experiment 2* 

MASS OF UNIT VOLUME OF A SOLID 

Weigh several solids whose volumes have been found, and 
thus determine their masses. From their masses and volumes 
find their several densities. 

Experiment 3 

GRAVITY PRESSURE OF LIQUIDS 

By subrnerging a suitable gage in water to various depths, de- 
termine the relative pressures of the water at those depths. At 
any chosen depth turn the face of the gage in several directions 
without raising or lowering the center of the face. What rela- 
tion between pressure and direction? What relation between 
pressure and depth ? 

Experiment 4 

PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES : SINKING BODIES 

Find the loss of weight in water of some sinking solid, and 
with the aid of an overflow can find the weight of the water dis- 



PHYSICS 



^5 



placed. What relation between the two results ? How might 
the result of this experiment have been anticipated from the 
conclusion of experiment 3? 

Experiment 5 

PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES: FLOATING BODIES 

Weigh some body less dense than water, and then as in ex- 
periment 4 find the weight of the water it displaces. What rela- 
tion between the two weights? How is the result of this ex- 
periment related to the result of experiment 3 ? 

Experiment 6* 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF HEAVY SOLIDS 

Weigh at least three different solids in air and in water. 
From the conclusion of experiment 4 find the specific gravity 
of each. 

Experiment 7 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIGHT SOLIDS 

Weigh some light solid, such as wood, in air. Weigh a suit- 
able sinker in water, and then weigh the light body and the 
sinker in water. From the conclusions of experiments 4 and 5 
calculate the specific gravity of the light solid. 

Experiment 8 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS 

1 Weigh an empty stoppered bottle ; then weigh when filled 
with water, and again when filled with another liquid. Find the 
specific gravity of the other liquid. 

2 Weigh a heavy solid in air, in water, and in another liquid. 
From the conclusion of experiment 4 find the specific gravity 
of the other liquid. 

Experiment 9 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF AIR 

Weigh a large empty bottle (of at least 2 quarts capacity) 
fitted with tight rubber stopper and pinchcock. Pump the air 
from the bottle and weigh again. Open the pinchcock under 
water and later weigh the bottle with the water that has taken 
the place of the exhausted air. Calculate the specific gravity of 
the air. 



so THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Care should be taken to see that the bottle and fittings are 
perfectly dry at first. No large weights should be taken from 
or added to the balance between the first and second weigh- 
ings. It is best to obtain this difference of weight by moving 
the rider. 

Experiment lo 

boyle's law 

Find by means of a J tube with short arm closed, or with a 
gas burette, several volumes of the same mass of dry air when 
subjected to difi^erent pressures obtained by pouring mercury 
into the open arm (the barometric pressure at the time of the 
experiment to be used as the initial pressure). 

What relation between the volume of the air and the total pres- 
sure to which it is subjected? 

Experiment ii* 
EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE PARALLEL FORCES IN ONE PLANE 

By means of three spring balances or two balances and a 
weight, find the values of three parallel forces acting at several 
difi^erent positions on a rod. What relation between the total 
force operating in one direction and the total force operating in 
the opposite direction? What relation between the two outside 
forces and their respective distances from the middle force? 
What general relation between any two forces and their respective 
distances from the third force? 

Experiment 12 

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS 

With four or more spring balances apply parallel forces at 
various points on a rod so as to produce equilibrium. How does 
the sum of the forces operating in one direction compare with 
the sum of the forces operating in the opposite direction? How 
does the sum of the moments tending to produce clockwise ro- 
tation compare with the sum of the moments tending to pro- 
duce counter-clockwise rotation? Does this relation of moments 
depend upon the point selected as the axis of rotation? What 
points, then, may be selected as axes of rotation ? 



PHYSICS 87 

Experiment 13 

TO FIND THE POINT OF APPLICATION OF THE WEIGHT OF A BODY 

Weigh an irregular bar of wood (e. g. a lath with a block of 
wood nailed to one end) and balance it over a fulcrum to locate 
its center of gravity. Hang a known weight to some part of the 
bar and balance over a fulcrum again. By the law of moments, 
found in experiment 12, calculate the distance from the fulcrum 
to the point at which the weight of the bar must act in order to 
balance the known weight. How far is this point from the center 
of gravity of the bar? 

Experiment 14 
EQUILIBRIUM OF FOUR FORCES AT RIGHT ANGLES IN ONE PLANE 

On glass marbles support horizontally a square board in which 
are seven rows of holes at equal intervals, each row con- 
taining seven holes. With spring balances apply four forces at 
right angles so that et|uilibrium is produced. Note the direc- 
tion, magnitude, and point of application of each force. 

What relation between the two forces acting in opposite di- 
rections? What relation between the magnitudes of the two 
pairs of parallel forces and the respective distances between 
them? Select any hole in the board as an axis of rotation and 
find the sum of the moments of all the forces with respect to 
that axis. Select at least one other hole and repeat the calcula- 
tion. What general law of moments seems to be demonstrated? 



Experiment 15* 

EQUILIBRIUM OF THREE CONCURRENT FORCES IN ONE PLANE 
The parallelogram of forces 
With three spring balances pull upon three strings that meet 
at a point. Slide the notebook under the strings and record 
accurately the direction and magnitude of each force. Draw 
lines to represent the positions of the strings, and, measuring 
from the point of meeting, lay off distances to represent the 
magnitudes of the forces. Upon two lines construct a parallel- 
ogram and draw a diagonal from the point of meeting. How 
does this diagonal compare in direction and magnitude with the 
line representing the third original force? 



88 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Experiment i6 

RESOLUTION OF A SINGLE FORCE INTO TWO COMPONENTS AT RIGHT 

ANGLES 

Suspend a known weight from a point on the vertical side of a 
post or bar of wood fixed in an upright position. A spring bal- 
ance should be included in the upper part of the suspending cord, 
and a light wooden rod about 15 inches long should be placed as a 
horizontal brace about 18 inches below the point of suspension to 
hold the weight away from the upright bar. Attach a spring bal- 
ance to the outer end of the horizontal bar and note what tension 
is required acting horizontally to permit the released bar to fall. 
Draw a right triangle whose sides shall represent the upright bar, 
the horizontal rod and the slanting string, and find the values of 
the vertical and horizontal components of the tension of the first 
spring balance. 

Experiment 17* 

THE INCLINED PLANE, WITH FORCE PARALLEL TO PLANE 

Incline a smooth board or plate of glass at an angle of about 30° 
with the horizon, and with a spring balance find the force neces- 
sary to draw a small loaded car up the incline. This force may 
be found by pushing the car gently up the incline and letting it fol- 
low the finger slowly back to a position of rest and then pushing 
the car a little down the incline and letting it follow the finger to 
a position of rest. The average of the two balance readings at 
rest will be the true force required to sustain or move the car 
with the efl^ect of friction eliminated. Calculate the work neces- 
sary to move the car along the plane between any two selected 
points. Calculate also the work necessary to lift the weight of the 
car through the vertical height represented by the difference of level 
of the two points. How do the two amounts of work compare 
with each other? 

Experiment 18* 

LAWS OF THE PENDULUM : AMPLITUDE, MASS, LENGTH 

Swing pendulums of equal lengths but of different weights 
through equal arcs and note the number of vibrations a minute. 
Swing the same pendulum through short and long arcs and note 
the number of vibrations a minute. Note the number of vibra- 
tions a minut© for pendulums of various lengths and find what 



PHYSICS 



89 



relation there is between the length of a pendulum and its number 
of vibrations a minute. 

Experiment 19* 

TESTING THE FIXED POINTS OF A THERMOMETER 

Completely cover the bulb of a thermometer with cracked ice 
contained in a funnel, and record the thermometer reading. Place 
the thermometer in the steam over a flask of boiling water and note 
the reading. From the barometer reading at the time of the ex- 
periment calculate the true temperature of steam. What is the 
freezing point error of your thermometer? What is its boiling 
point error? 

Experiment 20 

COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION 

By means of a steam jacket and magnifying lever find how much 
a rod of brass, iron or aluminum increases in length for a known 
rise of temperature. By calculation find how much 3 rod i centi- 
meter long would increase in length for a rise of i ° C. 

Experiment 21 
INCREASE OF VOLUME OF AIR HEATED UNDER CONSTANT PRESSURE 

Obtain a heavy glass tube about 40 centimeters long and 1.5 
millimeters in diameter of bore. This tube should be sealed at 
one end, filled with thoroughly dry air (drawn through a bath of 
sulphuric acid nearly filled with broken glass beads) and stopped 
near the open end with a mercury column about 4 centimeters 
long. Hold the tube either vertically or horizontally first in 
a bath of cracked ice and water and then in a bath of free 
steam. Measure the length of the air column both at the highest 
and the lowest temperature, and also note the barometer reading. 
Find by what fractional part of its own volume a cubic centi- 
meter of air would be increased while its temperature is rsised 

from 0° to 1° C. 

Experiment 22 

LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE, METHOD OF MIXTURES 

At several different trials mix two known masses of hot and 
cold water at known temperatures, and note the temperatures of 
each mixture. Calculate from the masses and changes of tem- 
perature the number of calories lost and gained by the hot and cold 
water respectively. 



90 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

How is the temperature change of each body of water related to 
its mass ? 

Experiment 23* 
SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SOLID 

Wind a strip of copper, lead or zinc about 3 centimeters wide and 
long enough to make a coil weighing 400 or 500 grams, into a com- 
pact coil. Suspend the coil in free steam for about five minutes 
and then plunge it into a known mass (100 to 150 grams) of cold 
water at a known temperature and note the resulting temperature. 
How much heat is lost by one gram of the metal while its temper- 
ature falls one degree? 

Experiment 24* 

HEAT OF FUSION OF ICE 

Put about 100 grams of dry ice in small lumps into about 200 
grams of hot water (about 50° C) of known temperature, and 
note the resulting temperature. Weigh again to find the exact 
weight of the ice used. How much heat was used to melt i gram 
of ice? 

Experiment 25 

HEAT OF VAPORIZATION OF WATER 

Pass dry steam into a known mass of cold water, whose known 
temperature is about 10° lower than the temperature of the room, 
till the resulting temperature is about 10° higher than that of the 
room. Weigh again to find the mass of the steam introduced. By 
calculation find how much heat is given out by a gram of steam in 
changing from vapor to boiling water. 

Sound 
Experiment 26 

VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR 

Arrange a large pendulum that may be seen for a considerable 
distance so that it will beat half seconds. The pendulum should 
be screened so that it may be seen only in the middle part of the 
swing. A sharp sound like the stroke of a hammer on a board 
or box should be made immediately behind the screen regularly as 
the pendulum reaches the lowest point of its arc. Observers should 
move away from or toward tthe pendulum till the sound of 
each stroke of the hammer reaches them at the same time with 



PHVSICS 91 

the next beat of the penduhim. The distance from the observer 
to th.e penduhim will represent the velocity of sound per half 
second. 

Experiment 27-'- 
THE W^AVE LENGTH OF A SOUND 

With a tuning fork and large (i>^ inches) glass tube to be raised 
and lowered in a jar of water find the quarter wave length of the 
sound given by the fork. From the results of experiment 26 find 
about how many times a second the fork must vibrate. 

Experiment 28 

NUMBER OF VIBRATIONS OF A TUNING FORK 

With a diapason tuning fork having large amplitude of vibra- 
tion, and a heavy pendulum provided with a stylus or bristle obtain 
simultaneous records of the vibrations of the fork and pendulum 
upon smoked glass. Count the vibrations of the pendulum for 
several minutes to obtain its average rate a minute. Then by com- 
parison of records on the glass find the number of vibrations of the 
fork a second. 

Light 
Experiment 29* 
Place a paper screen with an oiled or paraffined spot in its center 
between a candle on one side and a group of four similar candles 
on the other. Move the screen back and forth until a position is 
found at which it is equally illuminated from both sides. Note the 
distance from the screen to each source of light. Repeat with two 
or three candles on one side of the screen and one on the other. 
What relation between the two distances and the quantity of light 
sent from each source ? 

Experiment 30* 

LAW OF REFLECTION OF LIGHT 

Upon a horizontal sheet of paper stand a plane mirror, and 
draw a line marking the position of the face of the mirror. Stick 
a pin vertically in the paper about 5 centimeters in front of the 
mirror. Locate the image of the pin by two widely divergent 
sight Hues. How are the pin and image located with respect to 
the face of the mirror? From the place where one of the sight 



92 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

lines crosses the mirror line draw a line to the pin. This marks 
the path of the incident ray from the pin to the mirror. At the 
point of incidence erect a perpendicular to the line of the mirror 
and measure the angles of incidence and of reflection. How do 
these two angles compare? 

Experiment '31 

IMAGES IN A PLANE MIRROR 

Repeat experiment 30 placing a drawing of a scalene triangle 
in front of the mirror. Locate the images of the vertexes of the 
triangle and construct the image of the triangle. What conclusions 
may be made in reference to the position, character, and size of 
the image? 

Experiment 32 

IMAGES IN A CONCAVE MIRROR 

By methods of experiments 30 and 31 determine the position, 
size and character of the imtage formed by a concave mirror 
when the object is placed (i) within the principal focal distance, 
(2) between the focus and the center of curvature, (3) outside 
the center of curvature. Verify the equation of the sum of the 
reciprocals of conjugate focal distances with twice the reciprocal 
of the radius. What relation between the sizes of images and their 
distances from the mirror? 

Experiment 33 

THE PATH OF A RAY OF LIGHT PASSING THROUGH A GLASS PRISM 

Place a glass prism (a plate glass about 5 centimeters square 
is best) on a horizontal sheet of paper and by sighting with pins 
as markers find the path of a ray of light by which some object 
is seen through the glass. In what direction is a ray of light 
deflected in passing from a rarer to a denser medium, in passing 
from a denser to a rarer medium? At what angle of incidence 
WOUI4 there be no deflection ? 

Experiment 34* 
FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVERGING LENS 

Find the focal length of a converging lens either by projecting 
an image of the sun on a paper screen, or by the method of observ- 
ing the position of the image of a distant object such as a tree or 
a church spire. 



PHYSICS 93 

Experiment 35* 

CONJUGATE FOCI OF A CONVERGING LENS 

Project upon a small screen in a dark room images ot a bright 
object placed at various distances from the lens, and note the 
several distances of object and image from the lens. See if these 

I.I I 

distances conform to the law expressed in the formula \ = — . 

Do D, F 
What relation between the distance of the image from the lens 
and the size of the image? What general relation between dis- 
tance of object and distance of image from the lens? 

Magnetism and electricity 

Experiment 36* 

LINES OF FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD 

By scattering fine iron filings over cardboard placed over 
magnets obtain diagrams of the lines of force (i) about a single 
bar magnet, (2) about two like poles, (3) about two unlike 
poles, (4) about two bar magnets placed at right angles to each 
other thus'y, with a space of 23/^ inches or 3 inches between the 
magnets. 

What laws of mutual attraction and repulsion of poles seem 
to be illustrated by the curves ? 

Experiment 37* 

LINES OF FORCE ABOUT A CURRENT-BEARING CONDUCTOR 

Pass a stout copper wire vertically through the center of a 
horizontal cardboard. Send a current from two or three cells 
through the wire, and with a small compass explore the mag- 
netic field about the wire and mark out the lines of force. 
Sprinkle iron filings on the cardboard and draw the resulting 
curves. Repeat the whole experiment with the current in the 
wire reversed. 

State a law of relation between the direction of the current and 
the direction of the lines of force about the conductor. 

Experiment 38* 

THE STUDY OF A SIMPLE CELL 

Stand a strip of copper and a strip of zinc, each with a few 
inches of copper wire attached, in the opposite sides of a tumbler 



94 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

two thirds full of very dilute sulphuric acid. Note what seems 
to happen about the strips both before and after the connect- 
ing wires are brought together. Repeat the experiment after 
amalgamating the zinc. Place the end of one wire above and 
the other below the tip of the tongue. Connect the wires with 
a galvanoscope. Reverse the connection of the wires and note 
the result. 

What is the effect of amalgamating the zinc? What does the 
galvanoscope show in regard to the effect of the direction of the 
current ? 

Experiment 39* 

STUDY OF A TWO FLUID CELL 

Construct a cell having an amalgamated zinc in dilute sulph- 
uric acid and a strip of copper in a solution of copper sulphate, 
using a porous cup to separate the licjuids. Weigh both strips 
of metal; replace them in the cell; connect with a galvanometer; 
and take readings at five minute intervals for 20 minutes. Weigh 
the strips again and account for changes. Did any gas rise from 
either strip of metal? Why? What condition of the current is 
accounted for by this? 

Experiment 40 

LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE 
Internal 

With cell and galvanometer connected as in experiment 39, note 
the reading when the strips are drawn half way out of the liquid, 
when three quarters out, and when thrust in at the usual depth. 
Take readings when the strips are as far apart as possible and 
again when separated only by the wall of the porous cup. What 
is the effect of the size of the plate upon resistance What is the 
effect of the distance between plates? 

Experiment 41 

LAWS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE 
External 
Connect a cell and galvanometer with two meters of no. 28 or 
no. 30 copper wire. Increase the length of the copper wire grad- 
ually to 4 meters, and note the effect upon the strength of the 
current. Instead of a single copper wire use a double wire of 
the same size and find what length of the double wire gives the 



PHYSICS 95 

same resistance as the 2 meters of single wire. What effect has 
length upon the resistance of a wire? What effect has area of 
cross section upon the resistance of a conductor? 

Experiment 42 
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR 

Wind about 50 centimeters of fine iron wire in a close spiral 
and connect in circuit with a cell and galvanometer. Note the 
reading when the wire is cold and again when heated over a gas 
flame. What effect has a high temperature upon resistance? 

Experiment 43 

EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON THE TEMPERATURE OF A 

CONDUCTOR 

Introduce about 10 centimeters of very fine (no. 32) iron wire 
into a circuit with two cells connected in series. Slowly move 
one of the line wires along the iron wire so as to diminish the 
length of the iron wire in circuit. Note the temperature effect. 

Experiment 44 

DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT OVER THE BRANCHES OF A DIVIDED 

CIRCUIT 

Introduce a galvanometer into each of the branches of a 
divided circuit. By varying the lengths or cross sections of the 
branches observe the manner in which the current seems to be 
distributed. 

Experiment 45 

ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS TO PRODUCE THE STRONGEST CURRENT 

Arrange two cells in series and then parallel when the external 
resistance is furnished by short stout copper wires and five coils 
of a galvanometer. Repeat with the external resistance fur- 
nished by long fine wires and 15 coils of the galvanometer. The 
fine wires should be of German silver. From the galvanometer 
readings decide which arrangement is best for given conditions. 

Experiment 46* 

THE ELECTRO-MAGNET 

Wind a rod of soft iron with an insulated copper wire and 
connect with a cell. Try the lifting power of the rod on iron 
filings, tacks and small nails when the circuit is opened and 



96 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

closed. With a compass determine the nature of each pole of 
the rod. Reverse the connections with the cell and test the 
poles again. What relation between the direction of the cur- 
rent and the nature of the pole presented toward you? How do 
the results of this experiment agree with those of experiment 37? 

Experiment 47 

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH 

Connect a telegraph key and sounder (a simple homemade 
instrument is even better than an instrument from the shops) 
with a cell ; and by the use of a compass determine the con- 
dition of the poles of the magnet when the circuit is open and 
when closed. Do the results of your observation agree with 
those in experiment 46? 

Experiment 48* 

THE ELECTRIC BELL 

Connect a small electric bell with a cell and by use of a com- 
pass determine the condition of the poles of the magnet when 
the hammer of the bell is pressed and held over toward the 
gong, and when the hammer is held away from the gong. 

By drawing and description show how the hammer is kept in 
motion. 

Experiment 49 

STUDY OF AN ELECTROMOTOR 

Pass the current from two or three cells through a simple 
motor and with a compass test the poles of the field magnet 
and armature while the armature is held at rest in several 
positions. With a simple drawing and explanation show how 
the current causes the armature to revolve. 

Experiment 50 

EFFECT PRODUCED UPON A COIL OF WIRE MOVING THROUGH A MAG- 
NETIC FIELD 

With long connecting wires join a coil of 10 turns of wire, 
making a ring 3 inches in diameter, with the binding posts of 
an astatic galvanometer. Move the coil to a position in front 
of a strong magnet. Account for the effect upon the galvanom- 
eter. Draw the coil suddenly away from the magnet and ac- 
count for the result as before. 



PHYSICS 97 

Experiment 51 

STUDY OF A DYNAMO 

Connect a small dynamo with a galvanometer of five turns 
and cause the armature to revolve with slowly increasing speed. 
Account for the effect upon the galvanometer, including con- 
stancy of direction. Repeat with a uniform moderate rotation 
and account for the small initial effect and its gradual building 
up or increase. 

Experiment 52 

ELECTROPLATING 

Attach a large clean wire nail to one terminal of a battery of 
three cells in series and a strip of copper {see Experiment 39) to 
the other terminal. Plunge both nail and copper strip into a 
solution of copper sulphate for a few moments and note the re- 
sult. Reverse the positions of nail and strip and repeat. Which 
arrangement is best? Upon which terminal (anode or cathode) 
is metal deposited? 

After the nail has been well coated, let it dry and then polish 
it by gentle rubbing with a dusty blackboard eraser. The cop- 
per plated nail may be nickel plated by attaching it to a suitable 
electrode in a solution of ammonium-nickel sulphate. 

Experiment 53 

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTROSTATIC SERIES 

Rub a glass rod with silk and present the rod to the plate of 
an electroscope. Rub a stick of sealing wax with flannel or 
catskin and present the wax to the plate of an electroscope. 
Determine with the electroscope the kind of electrification pro- 
duced on each of six or eight different insulators, when each is 
rubbed with the others, and form a series such that each sub- 
stance is positively charged when rubbed with any succeeding 
substance. 



98 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

CHEMISTRY 
Topical syllabus in chemistry 

The course of instruction in chemistry should be based on the 
following : 

1 Individual laboratory work consisting of exercises requir- 
ing 30 double periods of work ; at least 25 of these exercises 
should be chosen from the appended list, all exercises marked 
with a * to be included. 

2 Instruction by lecture table demonstrations, to be used 
mainly as a Ijasis for questioning upon the general principles of 
chemistry and their applications. 

3 The study of at least one standard textbook, to the end that 
the pupil may gain a comprehensive and connected view of the 
more important facts and laws of elementary chemistry. 

It is recommended that throughout the course especial atten- 
tion be paid to the common illustrations of chemical laws and 
to their industrial applications. 

The general directions preceding the laboratory syllabus in 
physics excepting paragraphs 8 and 10 apply also to the syllabus 
in chemistry. 

The certificate attached to the notebook in chemistry should 
be expressed in the following words : This notebook contains 

the original record of work done by 

in the laboratory of the High School. All 

drawings, descriptions of processes, observed phenomena and 
numerical data were recorded in the laboratory at the time the 
experiments were performed. 
Iiitroductory work 

It is recommended that the introductory work conform to the 
historical development of the subject, i.e. heating ot metals 
in air, with an examination before and after heating. This 
examination should include weighing to show effect on weight, 
and the determination of the nature of the substance taken 
from the air. 
Oxygen 

Preparation by the decomposition of 
Mercuric oxide 
Potassium chlorate 



CHEMISTRY 



99 



Properties 

Physical: color, odor, solubility in water, weight relative 

to air 
Chemical : tendency to form oxides, terms oxidation and 
combustion explained 
Necessity to life 
Ozone 
Hydrogen 

Preparation 

Electrolysis of water 

Action of certain metals (e.g. sodium) on water 
Replacement in acids by metals 
Properties 

Physical : as with oxygen 
Chemical : burns in air 
Uses 

Oxyhydrogen flame : blowpipe ; limelight 
Compounds 
Water 

Synthesis by weight and by volume 
Law of definite proportions 
Combining weights 
Solution 

Terms water of crystallization, efflorescent substance and 
deliquescent substance defined 
Hydrogen peroxide 
Uses 

Law of multiple proportions 
Atomic hypothesis 

Development from laws of definite and multiple proportions 
Chlorine 

Preparation 

Electrolysis of brine (demonstration) 

Oxidation of hydrochloric acid (e.g. by manganese diox- 
ide) 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : direct combination with other elements to form 
chlorides ; action with water 
Uses 

Bleaching action 

7 



100 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Compounds 

Hydrochloric acid 

Preparation : a chloride and sulphuric acid 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : a typical acid shown by taste, action on litmus, 
and reaction with metals 
Uses 

Digestive ; preparation of chlorine 
Composition by volume (determination with sodium amalgam, 
demonstration) 
Avogadro's hypothesis 

Development of reason for belief that the hydrogen molecule 

contains two atoms 
Determination of the density of gases 

Calculation of molecular weights from density 
Introduction of formulas and writing of equations for reactions 
already studied 
With emphasis on atomic and molecular weight relations 
Sodium (and potassium) 
Metal 

Preparation 

Electrolysis of fused sodium hydroxide ^ 
Properties 

Physical : color, luster, hardness, power to conduct heat 

and electricity 
Chemical: action with water (evaporation of solution); 
study of hydroxide as a typical base, viz, action with litmus, 
action with acids (neutralization) 
Solution 

Electrolytes (acids, bases, salts) 

Nonelectrolytes (sugar, alcohol, glycerine, distilled water) 

Ionization hypothesis 

Atom and ion distinguished 

Terms acid and base defined 
Neutralization 
Sodium and potassium compounds 
Hydroxides 

Commercial preparation and uses 
Chlorides 

Occurrence, purification and uses 



CHEMISTRY lOI 

Carbonates 
Production 

Solvay process 
Uses 

Washing, cooking 
Nitrates 

Occurrence and uses 
Sulphur 

Occurrence 

Extraction and purification 

Allotropic forms 

Rhombic, prismatic, amorphous 
Crystalline form dependent upon temperature 
Properties 

Chemical: direct combination with copper, zinc, iron 
Uses 

Matches, vulcanizing, gunpowder 
Compounds 

Occurrence of sulphides and sulphates 
Hydrogen sulphide 

Preparation: ferrous sulphide and dilute acid 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical: combustion, action on metals, formation of 
sulphides by precipitation 
Sulphur dioxide (sulphurous anhydride) 

Preparation: burning of sulphur; reduction of sulphuric ac'd ; 

action of an acid upon sulphites 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : action with water, reducing action 
Uses: disinfectant, bleaching, manufacture of sulphuric acid 
Sulphur trioxide (sulphuric anhydride) 

Preparation : " contact " process 
Sulphuric acid 

Preparation: sulphur trioxide with water (contact process) 
Properties 

Physical : specific gravity and boiling point 
Chemical : action on metals 
Uses : dehydrating agent ; preparation of other acids with reason 
for same ; illustrations of wide industrial use 



102 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Nitrogen 

Occurrence . 
Preparation 
From air 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : nonsupporter of combustion, general inactivity 
The atmosphere 

Proofs that air is a mixture ; varying composition ; no energy 
reaction on mixing components ; fractionation of liquid 
air; approximate percentage of nitrogen 
Compounds 
Ammonia 

Occurrence : decomposition product 

Preparation : by-product of gas works ; action of ammonium 

salt with strong base 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : basic character of water solution, ammonium 
radical 
Uses : refrigerating agent, detergent 
Oxides briefly considered 
Nitric acid 

Preparation : nitrates with sulphuric acid 
Properties 

Chemical : reaction with metals, oxidizing action 
Uses; aqua regia ; illustration of industrial applications 
Nitrates 

Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen ; nitrification by bacteria ; 

nitric acid from the air 
Explosives 
" Brown ring " test 
Elements of the nitrogen group 
Phosphorus 
Occurrence 
Allotropic forms 
Use 

Matches 
Arsenic, antimony and bismuth mentioned 



CHEMISTRY IO3 

Elements of the halogen group 

Preparation of bromine and iodine 

Comparison of physical properties of chlorine, bromine, and 

iodine 
Relative replacement 
Fluorine 
Carbon 

Distribution in nature and allotropic forms 
Preparation of commercial forms 

Charcoal, coke, boneblack, lampblack, gas carbon 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical: reducing action, formation of carbides, e.g. cal- 
cium carbide and carborundum ; relation to organic 
matter 
Uses 

Fuel, ore reducer, absorbent, decolorizer 
Compounds 

Carbon dioxide 

Occurrence in atmosphere, relation to plant and animal 

life 
Production : respiration ; decay ; combustion 
Preparation : carbonates with acids 
Properties 
Physical 
Chemical : nonsupporter of combustion, formation of hard 

waters 
Uses: beverages; fire extinguishers; baking powders; 

formation by yeast in bread-making 
Importance as plant food 
Carbon monoxide 

Reduction of carbon dioxide by carbon 

Properties : physical ; chemical — combustibility, action on 

red corpuscles of the blood 
Use : water gas 
Silicon dioxide 
Occurrence 
Silicates 

Glass: manufacture; varieties — crown, flint, Bohemian 

Calcium compounds 

Calcium carbonate 
Occurrence 

Marble, limestone, shells 

i 



104 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Properties 

Solubility in water containing carbon dioxide 
Uses 

Building materials, making of quicklime, flux in iron fur- 
naces 
Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide 
Preparation and uses 

Mortar, its hardening compared with the hardening of 
cement 
Calcium sulphate 

Gypsum and plaster of paris 
Calcium phosphates 
Use in fertilizers 
Bleaching powder 
Manufacture 
Uses 

Bleaching, disinfecting 
Magnesium 
Zinc 
Metal 

Preparation of commercial forms 

Ingot, sheet, mossy 
Properties 

Physical ; as with sodium 
Chemical : action with acids, corrosion 
Uses 

Galvanizing, batteries, brass 
Compounds 

Oxide as a paint base 
Mercury 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 

Scientific instruments, amalgams 
Compounds 

Chlorides (calomel, and corrosive sublimate) 
Copper 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 

Conductor, electroplating, alloys (brass, bronze) 



CllEMISTRV^ 105 

Compounds 

Copper sulphate 
Uses 

Coagulum and fungicide 
Silver 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 

Coin, jewelry, mirrors 
Compounds 

Uses in photography (developing, fixing, toning) 
Gold 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 
Platinum 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 
Aluminum 
Metal 

Preparation 

Electrolytic process 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : action with hydrochloric acid and with sodium 
hydroxide 
Uses 

Paint, conductor, common utensils, aluminum bronze 
Compounds 
Oxide 

Corundum and emery 
Hydroxide 

Preparation from alum 

Uses: mordant, water purification (coagulum) 
Silicates : clay ; earthenware ; porcelain 
Iron 
Metal 

Metallurgy 

Blast furnace process (cast iron) 
Puddling (wrought iron) 



I06 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STiVTE OF NEW YORK 

Bessemer process (Bessemer iron) 
Open hearth process (steel) 
Comparison of cast iron, wrought iron and steel 

Composition, fusibility, malleability and tenacity, temper- 
ing, magnetic properties 
Common uses of cast iron, wrought iron, Bessemer iron and 

steel 
Protective coatings to prevent corrosion 
Compounds 
Oxides 

Ferric oxide as paint base and rouge 
Pyrite 

Ferrous and ferric chlorides illustrative of change in valence 
(oxidation and reduction) 
Tin 
Metal 

Properties 
Uses 

Tinware, solder, block tin pipes 
Lead 
Metal 

Extraction from galena by roasting 
Properties 
Physical 

Chemical : corrosion 
Uses 

PipCj shot, alloys, (solder, type metal) 
Compounds 

Red and white lead as paint bases 
Compounds of carbon 
Sources 

Destructive distillation of wood 

Gas, wood alcohol, acetic acid, charcoal 
Destructive distillation of coal 

Gas, ammonia, coal tar, coke 
Distillation of petroleum 

Natural gas, gasolene, benzine, kerosene, paraffin 
Hydrocarbons 
Marsh gas 

Occurrence : natural gas and " fire damp " 
Properties 



CHEMISTRY 107 

Substitution products 
Chloroform and iodoform 
Acetylene 

Production from calcium carbide 
Benzine 
Alcohols 

Methyl alcohol 
Ethyl alcohol 

Preparation : fermentation 

Uses : solvent in beverages, preparation of ether 
Denatured alcohol 
Aldehydes 

Formaldehyde 

Preparation : oxidation of methyl alcohol 
Formalin 
Acids 
Formic 

Relation to formaldehyde 
Acetic 

Preparation by fermentation of alcohol 
Ethereal salts 
Ethyl acetate 
Fats 

Soap-making and glycerine ; action of soap with hard 
water 
Carbohydrates 
Starch 
Sugar 
Cellulose 

Laboratory syllabus in chemistry 

In the following outline the word exercise is used to indicate 
work occupying a double period; an experiment may occupy a 
double period or only part of a double period. Detailed direc- 
tions for common experiments are omitted in most cases ; the 
questions indicate the lines of thought to be developed from the 
experimental work. 



I08 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise /* 
Experiment i 
HEATING OF METALS IN AIR 

Examine a bright piece of copper, of magnesium, and of zinc, 
noting in each case the color, luster and tenacity of metal. Hold 
the piece of copper in the outer flame of burner till red hot. Re- 
move from flame and examine carefully. In what respects does 
the surface material differ from the original copper? Repeat 
with magnesium. Results? Place about half a gram of zinc 
dust in a layer on the asbestos square. Direct on it from above 
the flame of a Bunsen burner. Results? 

Experiment 2 

TO SHOW CHANGE IN WEIGHT OVER COUNTERPOISE, QUALITATIVELY, 
UPON HEATING ONE OF THE ABOVE METALS 

1 Zinc dust in open crucible 

2 Magnesium ribbon in ignition tube 

3 Fine copper wire or gauze in open crucible 

Has there been a loss or gain in weight? What explanation 
can be made for the change in weight ? 

Exercise II* 
Experiment 3 

DECOMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND FORMED BY HEATING MERCURY IN 

AIR 

Heat a little of the red powder in an ignition tube. What sub- 
stance collects on the cooler portion of the tube a short distance 
above the powder? What is the difference between the behavior 
of a glowing splinter in air and a glowing splinter held in the 
test tube? What is the state of the substance that produces the 
effect? Of what is the red powder composed? Where did each 
of these substances come from when the red powder was made? 

Experiment 4 
DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF OXYGEN IN AIR (VOLUMETRIc) 

Volume of air inclosed by graduate clamped with mouth 
downward and under water ; oxygen absorbed by very small 
piece of phosphorus supported by a copper wire. What percentage 
of oxygen do you find in the air? 



CHEMISTRY lOQ 

Exercise III^ 

Experiment 5 

PREPARATION OF OXYGEN BY THE DECOMPOSITION OF POTASSIUM 

CHLORATE MIXED WITH MANGANESE DIOXIDE 

Heat a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide 
in a test tube and collect the resulting gas over water. Small 
portion of gas tested with a splinter and remainder collected 
for experiment 6. Treat black residue with hot water, filter, and 
add silver nitrate to filtrate. Result? Then test solution of 
potassium chlorate with silver nitrate. Examine residue on 
filter paper. Which of the original substances seems unchanged? 
What proof have you of change in one of them? Where do you 
think the oxygen came from? 

Experiment 6 

FORMATION OF OXIDES 

Burn carbon, sulphur, magnesium, red phosphorus and iron in 
oxygen. In each case note intensity of action, presence or ab- 
sence of flame, color of flame, character of product formed, and 
effect of solution of product on red and blue litmus. Also com- 
pare tenacity of iron with that of its products. 

Exercise IV* 

Experiment 7 

ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER 

Pass the current from two or three cells through acidulated 
water in the usual apparatus for electrolysis. What is the direc- 
tion of the current? Which electrode is positive? Which nega- 
tive? Apply terms anode and cathode. What does the splinter 
test show about the gas that collects at the anode? Is the same 
gas liberated at the cathode? How does the amount of gas 
liberated at the anode compare with the amount at the cathode ? 

Experiment 8 

DECOMPOSITION OF WATER BY SODIUM 

Fold a piece of sodium as large as an apple seed in dry filter 
paper and thrust quickly upward into a test tube of water in- 
verted in water. A pair of iron forceps should be used to handle 
the paper and sodium. What gas collects in the test tube? 
Where does this gas come from? 



no THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise F* 
Experiment 9 

PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN BY REPLACEMENT IN AN ACID BY A 

METAL 
Zinc or iron with hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid 
What advantage has this method over the previous method 
for preparing hydrogen ? From what material does the hydro- 
gen probably come? Is there anything dissolved in the liquid, 
and, if so, what does it probably contain? 

Experiment 10 

PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN 

How do you determine the relative weight of hydrogen and 
air? Does it burn? Does it support combustion? Why must 
the joints of the apparatus be tight? Why do you discard the 
first portion of the gas collected? What is the effect of passing 
hydrogen over heated copper oxide? What becomes of the 
oxygen? A material which acts towards an oxide in this way 
is called a reducing agent. 

Exercise VI 

Experiment 11 

EQUIVALENT OF SODIUM, MAGNESIUM OR ZINC 

What weight of the metal is required to liberate i gram of 
hydrogen? What name is given to this weight? 

Exercise VII"^ 

Experiment 12 

PREPARATION OF CHLORINE BY OXIDATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID 

Heat hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide in a flask. 
From which of the original materials is the chlorine derived? 
With what does the oxygen of the manganese dioxide combine? 

Experiment 13 

PROPERTIES OF CHLORINE 

Into jars of chlorine gas plunge a lighted taper, and wet and 
dry colored cloths. Why do you not collect chlorine as you did 
hydrogen? Does chlorine support combustion? The taper is 



CHEMISTRY III 

composed of carbon and hydrogen, what is the evidence that 
one of these elements is hberated? Which one combines with 
the chlorine? Sum up your evidence as to the tendency of 
chlorine to combine with hydrogen. Explain the difference in 
behavior of chlorine toward the wet and dry cloths. What is 
your conclusion as to the activity of chlorine? 

Exercise J 'III* 

Experiment 14 

PREPARATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID WITH SODIUM CHLORIDE AND 

SULPHURIC ACID 

Heat common salt and sulphuric acid in a flask. Collect the 
resulting gas by dry displacement. 

Of what elements is hydrochloric acid composed? Where 
does the hydrogen come from? The chlorine? Why was sul- 
phuric acid selected? (Class discussion) 

Experiment 15 

PROPERTIES OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID 

How do you determine the relative weight of hydrochloric 
acid and air? Explain why the gas is not collected over water. 
Hydrochloric acid is a typical acid. What properties, then, 
characterize acids? How can silver nitrate be used as a test for 
hydrochloric acid and other soluble chlorides? 

Exercise IX 
Experiment 16 

DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF A LITER OF OXYGEN 

Heat about 9 grams of dry potassium chlorate and 6 grams 
thoroughly dried manganese dioxide in a dry test tube, with a 
loose plug of glass wool or dry asbestos wool above the powder. 
The gas is to be collected in a bottle of about 2 liters capacity. 
Weigh to a centigram the test tube, containing the mixture, and 
the upper part of the delivery tube before (and after) the heat- 
ing. Measure volume of gas evolved. Erom this volume and 
its observed temperature and barometric pressure corrected for 
water vapor tension calculate the volume at 0° and 760 milli- 
meters. Using the weight of oxygen as found, calculate the 
weight of a liter under standard conditions. 



112 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise X* 
Experiment 17 

ACTION OF SODIUM WITH WATER 

Put a piece of sodium not larger than an apple seed into a few 
drops of water in a crucible. Note action on water and effect of 
solution on litmus. Evaporate solution to dryness. 

How does sodium behave when placed on water? What gas 
is liberated? Sodium hydroxide is a typical base. What are the 
characteristics of a typical base? 

Experiment 18 

SODIUM HYDROXIDE AS A TYPICAL BASE 

Action on litmus, neutralization with hydrochloric acid and 
crystallization of product. 

What is the evidence that the characteristic properties of the 
acid and of the base have been destroyed? Is there any evidence 
of chemical change? Base your answer on temperature effect, 
crystalline form and taste of product. 

Exercise XI 

Experiment 19 

DETERMINATION OF THE CONCENTRATION OF AN ACID AND OF AN 
ALKALINE SOLUTION BY TITRATION 

A normal solution of an acid contains i gram of replaceable 
hydrogen per liter. A normal solution of an alkali contains 17 
grams of replaceable hydroxyl per liter. 

Problem. 10 c.cm of a half normal solution of hydrochloric 
acid exactly neutralize 5 c.cm of a solution of sodium hydroxide. 
How many grams of sodium hydroxide in a liter of the solution? 

Exercise XII* 
Experiment 20 
FLAME TESTS 

Test nitrates of lithium, sodium, pot'assium, calcium, strontium 
and barium. Use cobalt glass with mixtures of sodium and 
potassium salts. What is the greatest difference in the flames? 
To what part of the salt must this be due? Why? What "use 
might be made of these flames in analytical work? What effect 



CHEMISTRY II3 

does the cobalt glass have upon the color of the flame given by 
the sodium nitrate solution? Why? To what extent is the 
potassium flame affected by the cobalt glass? Which flame do 
you see when you take a mixed solution of sodium and potas- 
sium nitrate? Why can you not make out the other one with 
the naked eye? When you use the cobalt glass, which flame of 
the mixed solution can be recognized? Explain the use of the 
cobalt glass in making flame tests of mixtures of sodium and 
potassium salts. 

Exercise XIII 
Experiment 21 

SOLVAY PROCESS 

Preparation of sodium bicarbona,te by the action of carbon 
dioxide upon saturated ammoniacal brine. Dissolve 10 grams 
ammonium carbonate in 100 cubic centimeters ammonium 
hydroxide. Saturate this solution with sodium chloride by 
shaking with fine salt. Pour off the clear liquid and through it 
pass carbon dioxide to saturation. Filter off deposit, dry between 
filter paper and examine. 

Exercise XIV 
Experiment 22 

DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION 

Heat a known weight of crystals of barium chloride to a con- 
stant weight in an open crucible, and weigh the residue. Cal- 
culate the percentage of water in barium chloride and then the 
total number of molecules of water of crystallization per mole- 
cule of barium chloride. 

Exercise XV* 

Experiment 23 

STUDY OF SULPHUR 

Slowly heat roll brimstone in a beaker till it fuses and boils. 
Pour a part into cold water and let the rest cool till crusted 
over. Then break the crust and pour out the melted sulphur 
beneath it. Study changes of sulphur while being heated to the 
boiling point. Preparation of allotropic forms, rhombic, pris- 
matic, and amorphous. Upon what does the form that sulphur 
assumes depend? What is the stable form at ordinary tempera- 
ture? 



114 '^"I"!^ UNJNERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEV,' YORK 

Exercise XV I"^ 
Experiment 24 

PREPARATION OF METALLIC SULPHIDES 
Dry method 
Heat a mixture of iron filings and sulphur in a test tube. 
What is the analogy between the formation of sulphides and 
oxides ? 

Experiment 25 

PREPARATION AND PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE 

Treat a portion of compound formed in preceding experiment 
with an acid. Plunge a lighted splinter into a tumbler of the 
gas formed. What products are formed when we burn hydro- 
gen sulphide and how do you recognize them? What does this 
show about the composition of hydrogen sulphide? 

Exercise XV 11^ 
Experiment 26 

PREPARATION OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE 

Pour sulphuric acid upon copper turnings in a flask, heat, and 
collect gas by dry displacement. Concentrated sulphuric acid 
acts as an oxidizing agent. What is the usual action of a metal 
on an acid? Why do we not get the usual gas here? What 
becomes of it? How, then, do you account for the formation of 
sulphur dioxide? Complete the equation Cu + 2H2 SO4 = 
CuSO^ + + 

Experiment 27 

PROPERTIES OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE 

Physical, odor, solubility; chemical, acid character of solution, 
bleaching action, reducing power. Is the water solution of sul- 
phur dioxide acid or basic? Does dry sulphur dioxide give the 
same reaction? A chemical compound that combines with water 
to form an acid is an acid anhydride. Is sulphur dioxide such a 
substance? Complete the following equation: HoO+SOo^. . . . 
How does the formula of the product differ from that of sul- 
phuric acid? What is the name of the process by which this 
compound could be converted into sulphuric acid? The test for 
sulphuric acid (or other soluble sulphate) is the formation with 
barium chloride of a white precipitate which is insoluble in dilute 
hydrochloric acid. What is the effect of the sulphurous acid on 
a dilute solution of potassium permanganate? Has the sul- 



CHEMISTRY II5 

phurous acid undergone the change referred to above? What 
terms can be apphed respectively to the sulphurous acid and the 
potassium permanganate ? 

Exercise XVIII* 
Experiment 28 

PREPARATION OF AMMONIA 

Mix lime and ammonium chloride with water in a flask. Com- 
plete the equation CaCOH),^- 2NH4 Cl= + Ca CL 

= .... + .... + Ca CI2 

Why is calcium hydroxide used? (Think why sulphuric acid 
was used in the preparation of hydrochloric acid.) 

Experiment 29 

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA 

Invert a flask of ammonia gas over water. Physical, solubility; 
chemical, basic character of water solution. 

Exercise XIX* 
Experiment 30 

PREPARATION OF AND TEST FOR NITRIC ACID 

Heat potassium nitrate and concentrated sulphuric acid in a 
retort. Collect the distillate. Why do we use sulphuric acid in 
this preparation? Why not use hydrochloric acid? 

Exercise XX 
Experiment 31 

PREPARATION OF NITRIC OXIDE 

Put nitric acid (1:1) and copper in a generating flask. What 
is the usual reaction of a metal on an acid? Why do we not get 
the usual product here? What becomes of it? How, then, do you 
account for the formation of nitric oxide ? 

Complete equation 3CU + 8 HNO3 = 3 Cu (NO3)., + 

+ 

Experiment 32 

PROPERTIES OF NITRIC OXIDE 

Invert a test tube of nitric oxide over water. By pouring 
upward from another test tube introduce air or oxygen. What 
are the evidences of chemical change when nitric oxide comes in 
contact with air? What change has occurred? 



Il6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise XXI* 
Experiment 33 

STUDY OF BROMINE 

Gently heat a mixture of potassium bromide, manganese 
dioxide, and sulphuric acid (two parts acid to one part water) in a 
test tube. Preparation ; solubility in water, carbon disulphide, or 
chloroform ; replacement by chlorine. What compounds should we 
expect to have formed by the addition of sulphuric acid to potassium 
bromide? How is the action modified by the presence of manganese 
dioxide? Why? Is bromine more soluble in water than in 
carbon disulphide? What characteristic color does bromine give 
to carbon disulphide? Why does not potassium bromide solu- 
tion impart this color to the disulphide? Why does the colora- 
tion appear after the chlorine is added to the potassium bromide 
solution ? 

Experiment 34 
ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM BROMIDE 

Explain the use of the materials selected for this preparation. 
What chemical reaction should you expect? How do you 
account for the production of bromine? Account for the forma- 
tion of sulphur dioxide (compare with the action of sulphuric 
acid on copper). 

Exercise XXII* 
Experiment 35 

STUDY OF IODINE 

Heat a mixture of potassium iodide, manganese dioxide, and sul- 
phuric acid (two parts acid to one part water) in a test tube. Prep- 
aration ; solubility in water, alcohol, potassium iodide solution, car- 
bon disulphide or chloroform ; replacement by bromine and chlorine ; 
starch test. Explain the use of the materials as in the preparation of 
bromine. Determine relative solubility of iodine in water and 
in carbon disulphide, and the characteristic coloration in carbon 
disulphide. Determine, by method used in previous exercise, 
the relative replacement of chlorine and iodine, and of iodine 
and bromine. Arrange these halogen elements in the order of 
their relative replacement. 



CHEMISTRY II7 

Experiment 36 
ACTION OF SULPHURIC ACID ON POTASSIUM IODIDE 

What chemical reaction should you expect? How do you 
account for the production of iodine? Account for the forma- 
tion of the hydrogen sulphide. Compare with the action of sul- 
phuric acid on potassium bromide. Which of the three halogen 
acids is the most stable? Which is the most easily oxidized 
(i. e. the best reducer) by sulphuric acid? Give your reasons. 



Exercise XXIII* 
Experiment 37 

PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE 

Complete the equation : Ca CO^ -\- B. CI = H-CaCU 

= ... + . ..+CaCU 
Why can any of the common acids be used in preparing 
carbon dioxide? 

Experiment 38 

PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE 

Physical ; chemical, nonsupporter of combustion, acid charac- 
ter of water solution, reaction with limewater (temporary hard- 
ness). Is carbon dioxide an anhydride? Why? What is the 
first effect of carbon dioxide on limewater? Write equation. 
What further effect occurs on continued passing of the gas? 
How does the resulting liquid dififer from distilled water in its 
effect on a soap solution? Under what conditions is calcium 
carbonate soluble in water? Why is such a water called 
"hard"? Can such a hard water be softened by boiling? What 
became of the calcium carbonate? Devise a test for a carbon- 
ate. 

Exercise XXIV 

Experiment 39 

FOUR WAYS OF PREPARING SALTS 

Direct combination, neutralization, displacement due to vola- 
tility, displacement to insolubility. Students are to devise methods 
from principles already taught. 



Il8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise XXV^ 
Experiment 40 

ACTION OF COBALT NITRATE ON IGNITED OXIDES OF ALUMINUM, 
ZINC AND MAGNESIUM 

Experiment 41 

IDENTIFICATION OF SIMPLE SALTS, TREATED AS UNKNOWNS, CON- 
TAINING ABOVE METALS 

Exercise XXVI 
Experiment 42 

BORAX BEAD TESTS FOR COBALT, MANGANESE, CHROMIUM, IRON AND 

NICKEL 

Experiment 43 

ACTION OF METALS ON SALT SOLUTIONS 

Zinc on solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and copper ; copper 
on solutions of lead, silver, mercury, and zinc. In each case 
name the material deposited. What part does the metal added 
play? In what previous experiments have similar actions oc- 
curred ? 

Exercise XXV W 
Experiment 44 

CHEMICAL EQUIVALENT BY DISPLACEMENT 

Quantitative displacement of one of the metals in exercise XXVI. 
Weigh a small rod of pure zinc and place in a solution of copper 
sulphate. Collect the deposited metal on a filter, wash with alcohol, 
and weigh when dry. Reweigh zinc rod. Given the equivalent 
of zinc, calculate the equivalent of copper. Copper and silver 
nitrate might also be used to advantage. 

Exercise XXVIII* 
Experiment 45 

MORDANTS AND DYEING 

To a solution of alum add ammonium hydroxide to precipi- 
tation. Write equation. Does ammonium hydroxide precipi- 
tate litmus from solution? Add litmus solution to the solution 



CHEMISTRY • II9 

containing the precipitated aluminum hydroxide. Shake and 
allow to settle. What is the color of the supernatant liquid? 
What becomes of the litmus? Such a combination is called a 
lake. (One or two other lakes should be made, using logwood, 
cochineal, carmine etc.) Mordant a piece of cotton by soaking 
in alum solution, wringing, then dipping in ammonium hydrox- 
ide solution. Wring. Where is the precipitate of ammonium 
hydroxide? Boil cloth in litmus solution. Boil a piece of unmor- 
danted cloth in a solution of litmus. Wring and thoroughly wash 
both pieces of cloth. What is the use of a mordant? This exercise 
can be extended to illustrate the use of other mordants. 



Exercise XXIX 

Experiment 46 

REDUCTION OF FERRIC TO FERROUS CHLORIDE 

To a solution of ferrous sulphate add a solution of potassium 
f erricyanide. Result ? This is a test for a ferrous salt. To a 
solution of ferric chloride add potassium sulphocyanate. Result? 
This is a test for a ferric salt. To a ferric chloride solution add 
hydrochloric acid and iron (iron turnings or fine iron wire). 
Boil. Test small portions until the solution fails to give the test 
for ferric iron. What iron salt is there now in the solution? 
Complete the equation FeClg+H ( nascent) = ? 

Write another equation to acc(|unt for the hydrogen. 



Expeiiment 47 
OXIDATION OF FERROUS TO FERRIC CHLORIDE 

To a ferrous chloride solution add hydrochloric acid and a strong 
oxidizing agent, preferably hydrogen peroxide or nitric acid. 
Apply the two tests for iron salts. What kind of iron is now in 
solution? Complete equation 

FeClo+....H Cl + O =.... + .... 

[oxidizing agent] 

Such a change in valence as illustrated in experiment 46 is 
termed reduction ; that in experiment 47 is termed oxidation. 
Why? 



I20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Exercise XXX'^ 

Experiment 48 

SILVER SALTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY 

Prepare silver bromide. 

1 Show that light is capable of initiating the reduction of 
silver bromide by treating exposed and unexposed portions of 
the salt with a developer. A developer is a reducing agent 
capable of continuing but not initiating the reduction of a silver 
halide. 

2 Add " hypo " to ( i ) freshly prepared and unexposed silver 
bromide; (2) silver bromide unexposed but mixed with de- 
veloper; (3) exposed and developed silver bromide. Results? 
" Hypo " is the last solution used in preparing a negative. 
Why is it called the " fixer ? " 

or 
Experiment 49 

CYANOTYPE OR " BLUE PRINT " PROCESS 

Coat well-sized paper with ferric chloride. Place some opaque 
object or design on the paper and expose to the sunlight. Then 
float paper on potassium ferricyanide solution. Remove and wash 
thoroughly. Where is the deepest color developed? Which set of 
iron salts gives this color with potassium ferricyanide? What 
has happened to the ferric chloride, and what was the cause 
of the change? (The "sizing" in the paper takes part in the 
reaction.) 

Exercise XXXI* 
Experiment 50 

FERMENTATION 

Fermentation of sugar; distillation of product; iodoform test 
for alcohol. What is the gas liberated during the fermentation? 
What other compound is formed? The boiling point of alcohol 
is 78°. How do you explain the elevation of boiling point dur- 
ing distillation? (Continue distillation until one fourth of liquid 
has passed over.) Add quicklime to distillate and redistil noticing 
temperature. Why is the lime used? Identify second distillate 
by applying a match to a very small portion in watch glass, and 
by applying iodoform test with another portion. 



CHEMISTRY 121 

Exercise XXXII 
Experiment 51 

QUALITATIVE SEPARATION OF LEAD, MERCURY ("OUS") AND SILVER 

Exercise XXXIII 
Experiment 52 

PREPARATION OF AN ETHEREAL SALT 

Ethereal salts or esters. Dissolve about a gram of sodium ace- 
tate in a very little water and then add a few drops of concen- 
trated sulphuric acid. What acid would be made by this combina- 
tion? To the test tube now add a few drops of alcohol. Warm 
and notice the odor of the ethyl acetate. Write equation to show 
its formation, viz, Q H^ OH (alcohol) -|- (acetic acid) = 
(ethyl acetate) -f- 

Experiment 53 
SOAP MAKING 

Place in a porcelain dish a piece of fat the size of a marble 
and add 4 cubic centimeters of alcohol and 10 drops of a 50% 
solution of sodium hydroxide. Heat very gently, stirring con- 
stantly. Continue boiling until the odor of alcohol is no longer 
perceptible. The alcohol is used as a common solvent for the fat 
and the alkali. 

The tallow is mainly glyceryl stearate Cg H-, (Cjs H.,- 00)3, stearic 
acid, is H (Cjg H35 O,). Write the equation when the glyceryl 
stearate reacts with the sodium hydroxide to form sodium stearate 
or soap. This is the residue left in the dish. 



GROUP III (continued) 
BIOLOGIC SCIENCE 

Biology Elementary botany 

Elementary zoology Advanced botany 

Physiology and hygiene Advanced zoology 

For all high schools that have adequate laboratory equipment 
and teachers of the requisite scientific training, a first year course 
in biology is recommended. 

BIOLOGY 
General suggestions relating to the course 

The aims of this elementary course in biology are as follows : 

1 To give to boys and girls first-hand knowledge of some com- 
mon plants and animals. 

2 To lead them to some understanding of the essential functions 
carried on by all living things. 

3 To teach them something of the enormous economic import- 
ance to man of plant and animal products, and the necessity of 
conserving the biological resources of our country. 

4 To emphasize especially the essential conditions of individual 
and public health in city and state. 

Unity of the biology course. In this revision of the syllabus, 
the object has been to unify the course by selecting and em- 
phasizing those topics that are of general biological importance. 
Throughout the course, such fundamental principles should be 
presented as will show clearly to the student that he is studying 
biology, and not merely the separate subjects of botany and zoology 
and human physiology. To this end emphasis should be laid upon 
the important fundamental functions performed by all living 
organisms — nutrition (including digestion, absorption, circulation, 
assimilation), respiration, excretion, motion, sensation (irritability) 
and reproduction. 

The interdependence of plant and animal life and the eco- 
nomic importance of various living forms should be constantly 
kept in view. With this purpose in mind, related study of 
plant and animal topics may, at times, be of advantage ; e. g. 
in connection with the study of flowers, insects may be studied 
briefly to show their relation to pollination, or respiration of 
plants may be considered along with respiration of animals. 
But the complete study of any function (e. g. respiration) in a 



BIOLOGY 123 

series of plant and animal types is apt to result in a sacrifice of 
continuity with considerable loss of time in study and should 
not be attempted save by teachers of unusual skill. 

If the unifying ideas are thoroughly established in the mind 
of the student, the order of study of the main divisions and of 
topics is of secondary importance, so long as the fundamental 
principles involved are constantly kept in view. 

It is recognized that conditions for favorable study of the 
topics suggested vary in different parts of the State and in 
different seasons. Each teacher, therefore, is at liberty to se- 
lect the divisions and the topics that can be studied to the best 
advantage and to consider them at the time of year when ma- 
terial is most easily obtained. The order in whicii they shall 
be treated is regarded of less importance than the presentation 
of each at a time when satisfactory material can be readily 
found. For example, the development and growth of the tad- 
pole should be studied in the spring ; and material for the study 
of seed dispersal should at least be collected in the fall. 
Whether the beginning be made with plant or animal biology, 
it is recommended that human biology immediately follow 
animal biology on account of the economy of time thus made 
possible. Some may prefer to take up the study of plants first 
because they believe experiments and observations can be carried 
on more easily with plants, and because the phenomena of repro- 
duction can be more advantageously introduced with the study of 
flowers. Others may prefer to begin with the study of animals, 
because they believe that many children are more easily interested 
in animals than in plants. 

Experiments should be performed early in the course to show 
the characteristics of the more important elements and com- 
pounds found in living things, and the nature of such processes 
as oxidation and osmosis. The principles involved in these and 
other experiments should be constantly applied to plant, animal 
and human life, since the varied applications of a principle are 
alwavs far more important than the mere development of the 
principle. 

Methods of study. The individual student should be supplied 
with a specimen of each of the forms studied. It is essential, 
therefore, that teachers be furnished with a certain amount of liv^ 
ing and preserved material adapted for use in the study of animal, 
human and plant biology. 



124 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Too much emphasis can not be laid upon the importance of actual 
study of specimens. Textbook study alone of plants and animals 
means waste of time and energy of student and teacher alike. 
Textbooks should be used, however, to supplement the laboratory 
and field work, to correct erroneous impressions, to gain a com- 
prehensive knowledge of the subject, and to insure careful review. 
Oral recitation is also necessary, for by this means attention is 
called to important facts, and the student is led to see things in their 
proper relations. 

Observations of the plant or animal and the student's de- 
scriptions and drawings should in general precede the formal study 
of the text. The laboratory work may be directed either by a 
laboratory manual or by inductive questioning. If possible, it is 
better for each teacher to prepare his own laboratory directions. 
Teachers should remember that the primary aims in laboratory in- 
struction should be independence, and quality of work rather than 
quantity. 

So far as possible the experiments should be performed by the 
individual student. Demonstrations of more difficult experiments 
should be made by the teacher. 

Field work in biology is one of the best methods of arousing 
interest in the subject. This may be conducted by the teacher with 
groups of students, or work may be carried on by the individual 
student and reported to the teacher for suggestion and assistance. 
The museums, aquaria, botanical and zoological parks of the larger 
cities afford admirable opportunities for the study of animals 
and plants ; while the roadsides, meadows, ponds and woods, 
easily accessible from a school in a smaller town, give an 
equally valuable opportunity for the study of life in its natural 
surroundings. A field or museum trip should be carefully 
planned by the teacher in advance, and a definite outline of study 
should be furnished the student and followed by him in writing 
his notes, otherwise much of the value of the exercise will 
be lost. 

Notebooks. A carefully prepared notebook is an indispen- 
sable part of good laboratory work in biology. The laboratory 
notebook should contain drawings and descriptions of the ani- 
mals and plants studied by the student, together with an account 
of the experiments he has performed or observed. Outline 
drawings with a hard lead pencil are recommended, and each 
part should be carefully labeled. In describing experiments, 
students should be careful to distinguish between observed results 



BIOLOGY 125 

and conclusions drawn from these results. If the work is recorded 
on separate sheets of paper, these can be arranged in logical order 
and bound at the end of the course. The work in biology fur- 
nishes admirable material for expression by means of drawings 
and written composition. Hence, the laboratory notebook should 
be carefully inspected from time to time by the teacher to see 
that it contains accurate descriptions and drawings carefully 
labeled. It is not expected that teachers will rate each individual 
exercise, but some definite rating should be given to groups of 
exercises pertaining to particular topics. Teachers can in this 
way save time and energy for reading along general biological 
lines, and for definite preparation for laboratory lessons and 
recitations. 

The student should prepare an index of the drawings made, the 
experiments performed and the descriptions written in his laboratory 
notebook. After each title in this index he should place some mark 
to indicate whether the work has been done in the laboratory or 
outside the laboratory. This list must not include any copied 
drawings, dictations or abstracts. 

Notebooks and examinations. A student taking the De- 
partment's examinations must prepare a copy of the index of 
his notebook, as described above, and attach it to his answer 
paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index 
must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a 
true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating 
of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks must be 
accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the 
Department for a period of six months subsequent to the comple- 
tion of the course. 

Outline of the course in biology 
I Introductory topics 

1 Discussions to bring out ( 1 ) the knowledge of students con- 
cerning some of the essential functions of their own bodies 
(e. g. motion, breathing, nutrition and sensation), and (2) the 
idea of adaptation of structure to function illustrated by some 
part of the human body or some part of an animal, e. g. hand 
of man, claws of cat. 

2 Composition of living things 

a Experiments to show some of the characteristics of the 
more common elements and compounds found in living 



126 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

things, e. g. carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, wate«-, an^i 
carbon dioxide. In this study the process of oxidation 
should be specially emphasized. 
b Demonstration of the physical appearance of other ele- 
ments, e. g. sulphur, phosphorus and iron, and some of the 
compounds used by plants in making foods that are also 
needed by animals and man, such as nitrates, sulphates and 
phosphates. 
c Discussion of chemical elements present in the nutrients 
or food compounds, namely, starch, grape sugar, proteids, 
fats and oils, and mineral matters. Tests for each of 
these nutrients. (If desirable these tests may be intro- 
duced later, e. g. in connection with the study of seeds 
or foods.) 
d (Optional laboratory or home work) Testing common 
foods to prove the presence or absence of the various 
nutrients. 
e Discussion of the meaning and nature of conservation of 
energy. 
II Insects Animal biology 

Any one of the following three insects, together with the general 
topics on insects may be selected for study, grasshopper, butter- 
fly, bee. 

The grasshopper and its relatives 

1 Regions of body and appendages 

a Drawing of head to show compound eyes, antennae, and 
upper lip ; adaptations of mandibles for feeding 

b Thorax : position, number and structure of legs and wings ; 
adaptation for locomotion ; drawing of hind leg 

c Abdomen adaptations for breathing; drawing of several 
segments 

2 Study of living grasshopper to show methods of locomotion, 
feeding and breathing 

3 Life history 

The butterfly and its relatives 

4 Drawing to show (i) regions of body; (2) antennae, 
compound eye, proboscis; (3) position, number and form 
of wings 

5 Study of legs and wings to determine position, number and 
adaptations for locomotion 

6 Study of mouth parts to determine adaptation and method 
of feeding (Use living butterfly when possible.) 



BIOLOGY 127 

7 Life history of butterflies and moths 
The bee 

8 Head, antennae, compound eyes, mouth parts, adaptation of 
mouth parts for securing nectar 

9 Thorax, wings, legs, adaptations for locomotion. Drawing 
of hind leg to show adaptation for collecting pollen 

10 Abdomen ; adaptation for stinging 

11 Division of labor in a hive; life history 
General topics on insects 

12 Economic importance of grasshoppers, butterflies, moths, 
bees, silkworm, and other forms, beneficial or injurious to 
man 

13 Protective resemblance and mimicry among insects 

14 The relation of mosquitos to malaria and yellow fever; 
methods of extermination 

15 The relation of the house fly to disease; methods of 
extermination 

16 Work of the national and state governments in extermination 
of insect pests 

III Crustaceans (or fishes) 
Crayfish and its relatives 

1 Regions of body and appendages 

a Head and thorax : antennae, eyes and mandibles ; struc- 
ture, shape and attachment of gill scoop ; location of 
gills and their adaptations for breathing; boundaries of 
gill chamber; number and position of legs and their 
adaptations for locomotion. Drawing of a leg with gill 
attached 

b Drawing to show the structure of the abdomen and tail 
fin ; adaptations of these organs for locomotion 

2 Study of the living crayfish to determine methods of loco- 
motion, food getting, and breathing 

3 Life history of the crayfish ; food and adaptations for food 
getting, protective resemblance, molting, care of eggs and 
young 

4 Uses of food and oxygen to the animal, necessity of the 
functions of digestion, circulation, excretion and repro- 
duction 

5 Importance to man of the crayfish and its relatives (lobsters, 
crabs, shrimps) 



12^ THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

IV Fishes (May be studied instead of crustaceans) 

1 Drawing and study of a living fish to show regions, eyes, jaws, 
gill covers, and fins and to observe its movements and method 
of getting food 

2 Observation of adaptations in organs of locomotion, food get- 
ting and breathing 

3 Number and position of gills ; drawing of a gill ; adapta- 
tions of gills for breathing; observations of method of 
breathing 

4 Life history of some common fish, including its spawning 
habits 

5 Importance to man of several of the commonest food fishes 

6 Necessity and methods of fish protection ; work of the national 
and state governments in protecting and propagating food fishes 

7 Uses of food and oxygen to the animal ; necessity of 
digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, sensation and 
reproduction 

V The frog and its relatives 

1 Study of the living frog to determine position of external 
organs of head and trunk and to observe its movements in 
locomotion and in breathing 

2 (Optional) Drawing to show shape and parts of an arm and 
a leg 

3 Adaptations for jumping and swimming; observation of action 
of legs and arms to determine the use of each 

4 (Optional) Drawing of mouth cavity to show tongue, teeth, 
gullet opening, internal nostrils, glottis ; use of the tongue and 
teeth in feeding 

5 Demonstration to show the path of air to the lungs ; adaptations 
of the lungs for breathing 

6 Microscopic demonstration of epidermal cells. The cell, the 
unit of structure and function of all organs of the body of 
the frog 

7 Life history ; habits, means of protection ; importance to man 
of frog and toad 

8 Drawings from prepared specimen or model to show the posi- 
tion and shape of the principal internal organs ; uses of the more 
important internal organs 

9 Uses of food and oxygen to the animal ; necessity of the func- 
tions of digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, sensation 
and reproduction 



BIOLOGY 129 

VI Birds 

1 Study of living- specimen (English sparrow or other bird) 
to observe its methods of eating, of drinking and of loco- 
motion 

2 (Optional) Drawing of side view of head to show position and 
shape of beak, nostril, eye and ear. Drawing of foot 

3 (Optional) Parts of wing and leg; adaptations of wings and 
legs for locomotion 

4 Recognition of common birds 

5 Value of birds to agriculture as destroyers of harmful insects, 
weeds and certain rodents ; value as scavengers ; harm done by 
certain birds, such as the English sparrow, hawk etc. ; economic 
importance of domestic birds 

6 Necessity and methods of bird protection 

VII One-celled animals (protozoans) 

The '' slipper animal '" (Paramecium) or any other form having 
cilia is recommended; or amoeba may be studied, if available. 

1 Observation of living specimen to determine shape, size, direc- 
tion of movements 

2 Microscopic demonstration to show the parts of a cell, cilia, food 
masses. Drawing 

3 Uses of cilia in feeding and swimming; breathing, digestion, 
excretion, and reproduction by division 

4 The cell as the unit of structure and function of all animals 

5 Importance of protozoans to man 

6 Review of the vital functions of animals and a comparison of 
the various adaptations for performing these functions 

Human biology 

VIII Foods, stimulants, narcotics 

1 Nutrients present in common foods and their uses 

2 Value of common foods as tissue formers and as fuel ; 
economy in the purchase of foods ; daily diet for different 
occupation^ and for different conditions of climate and 
weather 

3 Principles involved in cooking of foods 

4 The chief adulterations in common foods ; benefits of Pure 
Food and Drug Law 



130 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

5 Impurities in water and milk; diseases transmitted by infected 
milk and impure water 

6 Discussion of stimulants and narcotics ; danger from the use 
of patent medicines and other drugs without a physician's 
advice 

IX Organs of digestion and their functions 

1 Position, general structure (details omitted), and functions 
of the parts of the alimentary canal and the principal digestive 
glands 

2 Study of the mouth cavity to determine the position and num- 
ber of the different kinds of teeth ; the position of hard and 
soft palate, and the tonsils ; the shape and attachment of the 
tongue, and the size and location of the opening into the 
throat 

3 Experiments to determine the uses of the teeth, tongue and 
cheeks in chewing and swallowing 

4 Microscopic demonstration of cells from the lining of the 
mouth. The cell as the unit of structure and function of all 
organs of the body 

5 Gross structure of the teeth ; care of the teeth, and causes of 
their injury and decay 

6 Experiment to show the digestion of starch; (optional) experi- 
ments to show digestion of fat and of proteid functions of 
saliva ; importance of thorough mastication of food 

7 Experiments (i) to illustrate the principles of osmosis; (2) 
(optional) to show the necessity of digestion of starch, of fat 
and of proteids 

8 The hygiene of eating; the causes and prevention of dys- 
pepsia 

9 (Optional) Demonstration of digestive action of gastric or of 
pancreatic juice 

10 The more important adaptations of the alimentary canal for 
absorption of food 

11 Efifect of alcohol and narcotics on digestion 

X Blood and circulation 

1 General structure of blood ; corpuscles and their functions ; 
plasma, its source, composition and uses ; clotting of blood 

2 (Optional) Microscopic examination of blood corpuscles 

3 Location, shape, size and functions of the heart 

4 (Optional) Chambers of the heart; valves of, the heart and 
their action ; blood vessels 



lUOLOOY 131 

5 Position, gross structure and use of arteries, veins and 
capillaries 

6 Experiment to show normal rate of pulse and causes of 
variation 

7 General course of the blood (names of arteries and veins not 
required ) 

8 Changes in the composition of the blood as it passes through 
various organs of the body (walls of the alimentary canal, 
muscles, lungs, skin and kidneys) 

9 Effect of systematic exercise on the circulation; the danger 
of improper exercise 

10 {Optional) The lymph; its composition and its. function 

11 Hygienic treatment of cuts and bruises 

12 Efifect of alcohol and narcotics on the organs of circulation 
and on the clotting of blood 

XI Respiration 

1 Location, general structure and functions of the lungs and 
air passages; action of the ribs and diaphragm in breathing; 
adaptations of blood vessels and air sacs for the interchange 
of gases 

2 Hygienic habits of breathing; effect of systematic exercise on 
the size of the chest cavity, lungs and air sacs ; effect of tight 
clothing; suffocation and artificial breathing 

3 Uses and necessity of oxygen ; proper methods of venti- 
lation 

4 Parts of the respiratory system attacked in tuberculosis, 
pneumonia, diphtheria, catarrh ; nature, location and effect of 
adenoids 

XII Excretion 

1 Organs of excretion : skin, kidneys, lungs, alimentary canal 

2 Adaptations of structure to function in organs of excretion 

3 Importance of getting rid of wastes 

XIII Bacteria and sanitation 

1 General characteristics of bacteria (abundance, form, size) 

2 Experiments to demonstrate 

a Growth of l:)acteria from at least one of th'j following sources 
(air, water, milk, teeth, hands) on sterilized media (agar, 
gelatin, milk) 

9 



132 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Effect of favorable and unfavorable conditions on the rate 

of reproduction 
c Methods of killing bacteria (heat, fumigation, antiseptic 

solutions) 

3 The more important diseases due to bacteria and other micro- 
organisms; manner of infection; use of antiseptic lotions and 
gargles ; aseptic and antiseptic surgery 

4 Prevention of diseases by the individual 

a Fresh air, pure food, pure water, healthful exercise, sufficient 
sleep 

b Cleanly habits at home and in public places ; dangers of dust ; 
proper methods of sweeping and dusting ; care of home prem- 
ises and of foods ; treatment of cuts and wounds ; cooperation 
with civic authorities 

5 Beneficial forms of bacteria ; soil bacteria, dairy bacteria, bac- 
teria in relation to the preservation of food by canning, drying, 
salting and pickling 

6 Prevention of diseases by civic authorities 

a Care of streets, public places, water supply, sewerage and 
drainage ; supervision of milk and other foods 

b Vaccination ; antitoxins ; quarantine ; disinfection ; diagnosis 
of infectious diseases 

XIV Additional topics 

1 Principal parts of the nervous system : the brain, the spinal 
cord and the nerves ; their functions. Coordinating action of 
the nervous system 

2 Care of the eyes ; symptoms and detection of defective, vision ; 
common injuries to eyes and methods of relief 

3 Care of the ears ; danger from probing or striking the ear ; 
causes and prevention of deafness 

4 Necessity of sleep ; amount required for children and adults ; 
results of loss of sleep 

5 Bathing and cleanliness; necessity for bathing; advantages of 
hot and cold baths 

6 Methods of preventing round shoulders and spinal curva- 
ture 

7 Effect of alcohol and narcotics on the nervous system 

8 Emergency treatment of asphyxiation, hemorrhage, poisoning, 
burns, fractures etc. 



BIOLOr>Y 



133 



Plant biology 

XV Review of introductory topics especially those under com- 
position of living things 

Classes beginning the subject zvith Plant biology will, of course, 
take these topics first. 

XVI Seeds and seedlings 

For paragraphs i and 2, the bean seed or the corn grain is recom- 
mended. For paragraph 3, bean, corn and castor bean are recom- 
mended. For paragraphs 5 and 6, use any suitable seeds, such as 
wheat, oats, peas, mustard etc. 

1 Drawings to show external appearance and internal struct- 
ure (emphasizing the various parts of the tiny plant or 
embryo) 

2 Drawings to show the important changes in the embryo during 
germination, the method by which each seedling breaks through 
the soil, and in a later stage of the seedling, the form and posi- 
tion of the primary and secondary roots, and of leafstalk, blade 
and veins of a leaf 

3 Tests to show the position and kinds of food stored in seeds 
for the use of the embryo 

4 Experiments to demonstrate 

a Necessity of stored food for germination and growth (e. g. 

in corn) 
b The principle of osmosis 
c Digestion of starch (formation of grape sugar) during 

germination of corn 
d The im.portance of the digestion of starch, proteids and other 

nutrients 

5 Experiments to demonstrate respiration 
a Necessity of air for germination 

b Production of carbon dioxide during germination 

6 Experiments to show response of roots and stems to Hght and 
gravity 

7 Favorable conditions of germination 

8 Economic importance of seeds and seed products 

XVII The cellular structure of living plants 

I Microscopic demonstration to show that common plants are 
composed of cells. General appearance and parts of cells (cell 
wall, cell body and cell nucleus). (For this study, cells in thin 
cross sections of the stem of a young bean seedling or the 
thinnest layers stripped from the inner scales of an onion are 



134 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

recommended.) The cell, the unit of structure and function of 
all living parts of the plant 

2 (Optional) Microscopic demonstration to show that common 
animals and the human body are composed of cells. (For this 
study the cells from the lining of the human mouth and 
epidermal cells of the frog are recommended) 

3 Protoplasm, its composition and essential characteristics ; 
growth and cell division (briefly discussed) 

XVIII Roots 

1 Gross structure of the root system of a plant (e. g. bean 
or corn seedling). Primary and secondary roots and root 
hairs 

2 Microscopic demonstration to show the cellular nature of roots, 
of root hairs and of root cap 

3 Primary functions of roots (support and absorption) 

4 Application of the principles of osmosis to the process of 
absorption by roots 

5 Demonstration to show the region of the root through which 
liquids rise 

6 Tests to show that foods are stored in fleshy roots 
. 7 Important uses of roots to man 

XIX Stems 

1 (Optional) Drawing of the external structure of a woody 
.stem to show the position of buds, leaf scars, and markings 

that indicate yearly growth 

2 Drawing of the cross section of a woody stem to show pith, 
wood, pith rays, region of growth, and bark. Uses to the plant 
of each of above and of stem as a whole 

3 Drawing of cornstalk to show rind, pith, and woody 
bundles 

4 Experiments to demonstrate the upward path of liquids 
through the stems 

5 The uses of stems to man, e. g. food, building, fuel, clothing, 
cordage, medicine 

XX Leaves 

1 Drawing to show the external structure of a leaf 

2 Microscopic demonstration of the surface view of the epi- 
dermis and the air pores. Drawing 



BIOLOGY 135 

3 (Optional) Microscopic demonstration of a cross section of 
a leaf 

4 Position and use of epidermis, air pores, air spaces, veins and 
of cells with chlorophyll 

5 Food manufacture 

a Experiments to show the necessity of light and the presence 

of chlorophyll for starch formation 
b Demonstration of the liberation of a gas (oxygen) from a 

green water plant 
c Necessity for a supply of carbon dioxide and water 

6 Experiment to demonstrate liberation of water vapor from 
leaves 

7 Economic importance of leaves for shelter, food and medicine 

XXI Flowers and fruits (organs of reproduction) 

1 Drawings to show general structure of the parts of flowers. 
Function of each part 

2 Location and cellular nature of ovules and pollen ; formation 
of seed from fertilized ovule 

3 Pollination and fertilization ; adaptations of a few common 
flowers for pollination 

4 Drawings to show external and internal structure of two or 
more fruits 

5 Parts of the flower present in the fruits studied 

6 Adaptations of fruits for dispersal of seeds 

7 Economic importance of common fruits and common plants, 
including weeds 

XXII Forest and forest products 

1 Importance of forests 

a In preventing floods and in maintaining the uniform flow of 

streams 
b In preventing erosion and in forming and improving soil 

2 Destruction of forests by fire and by improper methods of 
lumbering. Methods of forest protection ; necessity of re- 
foresting ; work of the Department of Agriculture ; need of 
state protection of forests 

3 Forest products : lumber, wood pulp, resin, turpentine, maple 
sugar 

4 Care of trees ; importance of trees in parks and streets 

5 (Optional) Recognition of common trees 



136 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

XXIII Review of plant biology 

1 Food manufacture in green plants ; necessity for digestion and 
the distribution of food; uses of food to plant 

2 Uses of oxygen to plant; excretion of water and carbon 
dioxide 

3 Necessity of reproduction; fertilization and its essential 
results 

4 Summary of uses of plants to man 

General biology 

XXIV Review and discussion of important topics 

1 Discussion of the cellular structure of living things. The 
cell as a unit of structure and function of all living things 

2 Demonstrations and discussions (repeating as mav be 
necessary) to emphasize the fact that animal, human and 
plant cells are essentially of the same structure, and that 
all animals (including man) and all plants are composed of 
cells 

3 Protoplasm; its composition and essential characteristics; 
growth and cell division discussed. Observation and study 
of a frog's egg as a cell, observing the beginning of segmenta- 
tion to form a tadpole. All multicellular organisms develop 
from the cell 

4 Discussion of the necessity of the principal functions of animals, 
man and plants, and a comparison of the structures by which 
these functions are performed, drawing attention to the fact 
that greater complexity of structure is correlated with increas- 
ing division of labor 

5 Review of introductory topics and other topics with special 
reference to showing the interdependence and the interrelation 
of plants, animal and man. Economic importance of plants and 
animals 

6 Discussion of topics having large economic and hygienic 
importance on the welfare of communities, e. g. methods 
of water supply, methods of sewage disposal, prevention of 
epidemics, importance and care of public parks, public baths, 
public markets, public museums, etc. 

7 Efforts of the state and national governments for the preserva- 
tion of health 

8 Work of the Department of Agriculture; consideration of 
methods of forest protection; necessity of reforesting; need 



EI.EMENTARV ZOOLOGY ITJ 

of State protection of forests and of food fishes. Other 
work of national and state governments bearing on the con- 
servation of biological resources 
9 Improvement of plant and animal forms by breeding 
lo Competition of plants and of animals for survival 

Note. Classes desiring more optional topics may select them from the 
additional divisions that follow, intended for schools that prefer half year 
courses. Study of earthworm, mammals and fungi are suggested. 

ELEMENTARY ZOOLOGY 

For the half year course in elementary zoology, use the topics 
(including optional topics) of the year course found under the 
heads of Insects (one of the three named) and the general topics 
Crustaceans, Fish, Frog, Birds, Protozoans, Introductory topics 
together with the topics under any three of the following divisions: 
Mammals, Reptiles, Mollusks, Worms, Coelenterates. 

XXV Mammals 

Rabbit, cat, squirrel or any available mammal 

1 Regions ; eyes and their external parts ; shape, size and 
position of ears ; nostrils ; parts of legs ; differences between 
the front and hind legs; characteristics of hair 

2 Observation of a living animal to determine methods of 
locomotion and of obtaining food 

3 Kinds of teeth and the use of each 

4 Skeleton: spinal column; skull; ribs; girdles; bones in legs; 
brief comparison with human skeleton 

5 Recognition of common mammals ; economic importance of 
mammals 

XXVI Reptiles 

Turtle and its relatives 

1 Regions ; eyes and eyelids ; nostrils ; ears ; the shell and its 
function (in case the turtle is used) ; number and parts of 
the legs ; scales. Drawing 

2 Position and character of the teeth (or beak of turtle) ; shape 
and attachment of tongue 

3 Study of living animal to observe its methods of loco- 
motion ; manner of eating and drinking ; movement of eyes 
and eyelids; withdrawal into shell of tail, head and legs of 
turtle 



138 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Related topics 

4 Recognition of turtles, lizards, alligators and snakes 

5 Economic importance of reptiles; poisonous reptiles 

XXVII Mollusks 

Clam and its relatives (One of the following: fresh- water mus- 
sel, soft-shelled clam, hard-shelled clam) 

1 Bivalve shell ; hinge ; umbo ; lines of growth. Drawing 

2 Mantle ; siphons ; gills ; labial palps ; foot ; abdomen ; ad- 
ductor muscles. Drawing 

3 Study of living specimen to observe action of cilia of gills 
and palps ; currents in and out of siphons ; pulsation of 
heart 

4 Respiration ; food getting ; locomotion 
Related topics 

5 Recognition of oysters, clams, snails, slugs 

6 Economic importance of mollusks 

7 Habitat of the mollusks studied 

XXVIII Worms 
Earthworm and its relatives 

1 General form ; differences between anterior and posterior 
ends ; dift"erence between dorsal and ventral surfaces 

2 Segmentation; bilateral symmetry; setae (bristles) 

3 Situation of mouth; "lip" 

4 Study of living animal to observe flow of blood in dorsal 
blood vessel ; methods of locomotion ; degree of sensitiveness 
in different parts of the body 

5 Drawing of exterior 

6 Respiration ; mode of feeding 

7 Economic importance of earthworm, tape worm and 
trichina 

XXIX Coelenterates 
Hydra and its relatives 

1 Shape, external parts. Drawing 

2 Observation of living animal to determine the action of the 
column and the tentacles 

3 Respiration, excretion; mode of locomotion 

4 Reproduction 

5 Method of obtaining food 

6 Habitat, means of protection 

7 Recognition of coral ; sea anemone ; medusae ; hydroids 

8 Economic importance of coral 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE I39 

Summary of laboratory exercises for elementary zoology, 
course of 20 weeks 

1 Laboratory study of grasshopper, butterfly or bee 

2 " frog 

3 " fish 

4 " bird 

5 " protozoau 
°6 " mammal 
<'7 " reptile 

8 " crayfish 

"g ' " clam or mussel 

''10 " earth v/orm 

"II " hydra or sea anemone 

12 " excursion to field, woods and parks to 

observe birds 
"13 Comparative study of skeleton of different animals 

14 Experiments to illustrate osmosis 

15 " oxidation 

16 " observe circulation of blood in frog's foot 

17 Microscopic demonstration to observe blcod corpuscles of frog 
and other animals 

18 Microscopic demonstration of epidermal cells of a frog 

19 Study of charts and of pictures enlarged by use of stereop- 
ticon 

20 Excursions to woods, parks, roadsides or museums to observe 
insects and other invertebrate form 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
For the half year course in physiology and hygiene, topics (in- 
cluding optional topics ) in the year course found under heads of 
Foods, Introductory topics, Additional topics, Digestion and absorp- 
tion, Blood and circulation. Respiration, Bacteria and sanitation, 
Excretion and the topics under the following division : Skeleton, 
Muscles, Skin and Kidneys. 

XXX Skeleton 

I Functions of the spinal column, ribs, sternum, bones of 
leg, arm, pectoral and pelvic girdles, shoulder and elbow 
joints 

« Elective (select any three). 



140 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Study of adaptation of structure to function in the bones of 
the body, including the skull as a protection of the nervous 
system and organs of special sense 

3 Gross internal structure and adaptations of a long bone and 
a rib 

4 Fractures, dislocations, sprains ; hygiene of the skeleton 

5 Differences as to composition and structure between the 
skeleton of a child and of an adult 

6 Experiments to show the chemical composition of bone 

XXXI Muscles 

1 The functions of voluntary and involuntary muscular tissue 

2 Arrangement of voluntary muscles and their gross struc- 
ture 

3 Necessity of food, fresh air, exercise and rest for muscles 

4 Laboratory study as far as possible of the muscles of the body 
and their action 

5 Microscopic study of a piece of beefsteak to observe cellular 
structure of muscle 

XXXII Skin and kidneys 

1 Study of structure and functions of skin, hair, nails and 
glands of the skin and adaptation of structure to function in 
these parts 

2 Importance of cleanliness ; advantages of hot and cold 
baths 

3 Treatment of burns 

4 Position and structure of the kidneys. (Use sheep's kidney for 
laboratory demonstration of structure) 

5 Changes in blood in the kidneys 

Resume of exercises for iaboratory work in physiology and 

hygiene 

1 Experiments to observe the characteristics of some of the 
elements, e. g. carbon, oxygen, sulphur, iron 

2 Experiments to show (i) oxidation; (2) osmosis 

3 Experiments to detect the presence of starch, using several 
different food articles 

4 Experiments to detect the presence of proteid matter in food 
articles, using several different objects 

5 Experiments to detect the presence of grape, sugar, using 
several different objects 



ELEMENTARY BOTANY I4I 

6 Experiments to detect the presence of fats and oils, using 
several different objects 

7 Experiment to show normal pulse and variations of pulse 
caused by exercise 

8 Study of mouth cavity including experiment to show use of 
teeth, tongue and cheeks in swallowing 

9 Construction of a diagram showing the course of the blood in 
its circulation 

10 Experiment to illustrate the action of the lungs and dia- 
phragm 

11 Experiments to show the composition- of bone 

12 Experiment to show digestion of starch 

13 Experiment to show digestion of proteid 

14 Experiment to show digestion of fat 

15 Experiments with bacteria 

16 Experiments to show necessity of the digestion of starch and 
proteids 

17 Demonstrations showing the general structure of principal 
organs of the body, using models or organs of an animal 

18 Microscopic demonstration to show the circulation of blood in 
the foot of a frog or in tail of a tadpole 

19 Microscopic demonstration to show structure of muscle 
tissue 

20 Microscopic demonstration of blood corpuscles 

ELEMENTARY BOTANY 

For the half year course in elementary botany, use the topics 
(including the optional topics) of the year course under the heads 
of Seeds and Seedlings, Roots, Stems, Leaves, Flowers and b>uits. 
Composition of living things, The cellular structure of living plants, 
Forests and forest products, and the topics under Fern, with Algae, 
or Fungi, or Moss. 

XXXIII The common fern 

1 Spore-bearing plant (asexual generation) : rhizome, compound 
leaves, sori, spore cases, spores. Drawings 

2 Prothallus (sexual generation) 

a Size, form, mode of growth, rhizoids. Drawing, lower 

surface 
b Microscopic demonstration of antheridia (spermaries) 

and archegonia (ovaries) 



142 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

3 Life history ; alternation of generations 

XXXIV Moss (Polytrichum or Fungaria) 

a Sexual generation : protonema and leafy shoots. Draw- 
ings. Demonstration of position of antheridia and arche- 
gonia. 

b Asexual generation : stalk ; capsule ; peristome and its func- 
tion; spores. Drawings 

XXXV Algae (Spriogyra or Pleurococcus) 

1 Spirogyra 

a Habitat ; color and slimy " feel " of mass ; exhalation of 

oxygen 
b Structure of filament; contents of a cell. Drawings 
c Formation of zygospores. Drawings. Life history 

2 Pleurococcus 

a Habitat ; appearance of mass ; contents of single cell 
b Reproduction of fission. Life history 

XXXVI Fungi (Study yeast or bread mold. together with economic 
importance of fungi) 

1 Yeast 

a Form, color and contents of cells ; budding. Drawings 

2 Bread mold 

a General appearance of mass of threads (hyphae) 

b Nutritive threads digesting and absorbing food from e. g. 
bread 

c Reproductive threads bearing spore cases. Spores. Draw- 
ings 

d Conditions of growth 

3 Economic importance of fungi especially yeast, molds, 
mushrooms, smuts, rots and rusts 

Summary of laboratory exercises for course of 20 weeks in 

plant biology 

1 Experiments to show the characteristics of the more common 
elements 

2 Study of seeds and seedlings, including all experiments 
suggested 

3 Study of stems, including all experiments suggested 

4 leaves 

5 " roots 



ADVANCED I'.OTANY . I43 

6 Study of flowers, including all experiments suggested 

7 " fruits 
"8 " alga 
"9 " fungi " 

"10 " moss " 

11 " fern 

12 Experiments to illustrate osmosis 

13 " oxidation 

14 " to test presence of starch in leaves and seeds 

15 " " proteid in seeds 

16 " " oils and fats in seeds 

17 " to illustrate other phenomena in connection 
with germination 

18 Microscopic demonstration to show cellular structure of 
plant tissues 

19 Study of charts and pictures enlarged by use of the stereop- 
ticon 

20 Field excursions to woods, parks and roadsides 

ADVANCED BOTANYi 

A student should be qualified by laboratory work, demonstra- 
tions, and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all 
the topics in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He 
should also prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which 
stress is to be laid upon accurate drawings and precise expres- 
sive descriptions. This notebook should contain ( i ) laboratory 
work to illustrate fairly completely at least the following six 
main topics as outlined below under A (Anatomy and morphol- 
ogy) : The seed. The shoot. The root, The flower, The fruit and 
The cell; (2) records of at least 15 physiological experiments 
illustrating as many as possible of the seven main topics out- 
lined under B (Physiology), but at least the first four; (3) 
carefully labeled drawings of forms to illustrate at least the 
following groups of plants (see part II below): two types of 
algae (preferably Pleurococcus to show method of growth to 
four-celled stage, and detailed study of Spirogyra), three types 
of fungi (preferably bacteria to show shape and motion, yeast 

"Elective (select one). 

1 The syllabus in advanced botany is based upon the report of the 
committee on botany of the science department of the National Educa- 
tional Association, modified by a committee of the Society for Plant 
Morphology and Physiology. 

This syllabus presupposes knowledge of the topics suggested in the course 
in elementary botany. 



144 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

to show method of reproduction, and mucor to show myceHum 
and reproduction), one type of Bryophytes (preferably a moss), 
two types of Pteridophytes (a true fern with its prothallus, and 
one other type, preferably Selaginella), and representatives of 
six families of Angiosperms. It is difficult to outline satisfac- 
tory notebook requirements in ecology. This branch of botany 
should, however, form a part of every good course, and clear 
accounts of field trips should appear in the notebook. In rating 
the notebook, no credit will be given for dictated work, lecture 
notes, or drawings copied from charts and textbooks. Work 
done outside the laboratory should be marked home work. 

A student taking the Department's examination must prepare 
a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer 
paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index 
must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a 
true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating 
of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not sub- 
mitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirements, must 
be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call of the 
Department for a period of six months subsequent to the com- 
pletion of the course. 

Part I The general principles of (a) anatomy and morphology, 

(b) physiology and (c) ecology 
A In anatomy and morphology 

The seed. Four types (dicotyledon without and with endo- 
sperm, a monocotyledon and a gymnosperm) ; structure 
and homologous parts. Food supply; experimental deter- 
mination of its nature and value. Phenomena of germina- 
tion and growth of embryo into a seedling (including 
bursting from the seed, assumption of position and un- 
folding of parts) 

The shoot. Gross anatomy of a typical shoot, including the 
relationship of position of leaf, stem (and root), the 
arrangement of leaves and buds on the stem, and devia- 
tions (through light adjustment, etc.) from symmetry. 
Buds, and the mode of origin of new leaf and stem ; winter 
buds in particular 

Specialized and metamorphosed shoots (stems and leaves). 
General structure and distribution of the leading tissues of 
the shoot ; annual growth ; shedding of bark and leaves 



ADVANCED BOTANY I45 

The root. Gross anatomy of a typical root ; position and 
origin of secondary roots; hair zone, cap and growing 
point 

SpeciaHzed and metamorphosed roots. (Optional) General 
structure and distribution of the leading tissues of the root 

The flower. Structure of a typical flower especially of ovule 
and pollen ; functions of the parts. Comparative morphologi- 
cal study of at least three marked types, with the construction 
of transverse and longitudinal diagrams (preferably a tulip or 
other lily, Fuschia or Oenothera, and sweet pea or other mem- 
ber of pea family) 

The fruit. Structure of a typical fruit, especially with ref- 
erence to changes from the flower, and from ovule to seed. 
{Optional) Comparative morphological study of six or more 
marked types with diagrams 

This comparative morphological study of flowers and 
fruits may advantageously be postponed to the end of II, 
and then taken up in connection with classification of the 
Angiosperms 

The cell. Cytoplasm, nucleus, sap cavity, wall. Adaptive 
modifications of walls, formation of tissues 

As to the study of the cell, it is by no means to be post- 
poned for consideration by itself after the other topics, as 
its position to the above outline may seem to imply, but it 
is to be brought in earlier along with the study of the shoot 
or root, and continued from topic to topic. Although 
enough study of the individual cell is to be made to give 
an idea of its structure — a study which may very advan- 
tageously be associated with the physiological topics first 
mentioned under B — the principal microscopic work should 
consist in the recognition and in the study of the distribution 
of the leading tissues 
B In physiology 

Role of water in the plant: absorption (osmosis), path of 
transfer, transpiration ; turgidity and its mechanical value, 
plasmolysis 

Photosynthesis : dependence of starch formation upon chloro- 
phyll, light and carbon dioxide ; evolution of oxygen, obser- 
vation of starch grains 

Respiration: necessity for oxygen in growth, evolution of 
carbon dioxide 



146 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Digestion: digestion of starch with diastase, and its role in 

translocation of foods 
Irritability: geotropism, heliotropism and hydrotropism; 

(Optional) nature of stimulus and response 
Growth: localization in higher plants; (Optional) amount . in 
germinating seeds and stems; rela^^ionship to temperature 
Fertilization ; sexual and vegetative reproduction 

Although for convenience of reference, the physiological 
topics are here grouped together, they should by no means 
be studied by themselves and apart from anatomy and 
morphology. On the contrary, they should be taken up 
along with the study of the structures in which the pro- 
cesses occur, and which they help to explain; thu.=, photosyn- 
thesis should be studied with the leaf, as should also tran- 
spiration, while digestion may best come with germination, 
osmotic absorption with the root, and so on. The student 
should either try, or at least aid in trying, experiments to 
demonstrate the fundamental processes indicated above. 
C In ecology 

Modifications (metamorphoses) of parts for special functions 
Dissemination 
Cross-pollination 

Light relations of green tissues ; leaf mosaics 
(Optional) Plant societies; mesophytes, hydrophytes, halo- 
phytes, xerophytes; climbers, epiphytes, parasites (and 
saprophytes), insectivores 
(Optional) Plant associations, and zonal distribution 

The topics in ecology (particularly the first four and in part 
the fifth) like those in physiology, are to be studied not by 
themselves, but along with the structures with which they 
are most closely connected, as cross-pollination with the 
flower, dissemination with the seed, etc. The fifth and sixth 
may most advantageously be studied with G in part II. 

In this connection field work is of great importance, and 
for some topics, such as the sixth, is indispensable, though 
tnuch may be done also with potted plants in greenhouses, 
photographs, and museum specimens. It is strongly recom- 
mended that some systematic field work be considered as an 
integral part of the course, coordinate in definiteness and 
value as far as it goes with the laboratory work. The temp- 
tations to haziness and guessing in ecology must be combated 



ADV-vNCED BOTANY 147 

Part II The natural history of the plant groups, and classifi- 
cation 

A comprehensive summary of the great natural groups of 
plants, based upon the thorough study of the structure, repro- 
duction and adaptations to habitat of one or two types from 
each group, supplemented and extended by more rapid study of 
other forms in those groups. Where living material is want- 
ing for the latter, preserved material and even good pictures 
may be used, and a standard textbook should be thoroughly 
read. The general homologies from group to group should be 
noted. 

In general in this part of the course much less attention 
should be given to the lower and inconspicuous groups, and 
progressively more to the higher and conspicuous forms. 

Following is a list of recommended types from which, or 
their equivalents, selection may be made. 
A Algae 

Pleurococcus, Spirogyra, Vaucheria, including zoosporic 
stage. Fucus 

( Optional) Batrachospermum 
B Fungi 

Bacteria, mucor, yeast. Puccinia (or any powdery mildew). 
(Optional) Mushroom. 
Bacteria and yeast have obvious disadvantages in such a 

course, but their great economic importance may justify their 

introduction. 
C Lichens 

Physcia (or Parmelia) 
D Bryophytes 

In Hepaticae, Frullania (or Radula or Porella or Marchantia) 

In Musci, Mnium (or Funaria or Polytrichum) 
E Pteridophytes 

In Filicineae, Aspidium or equivalent, including, of course, 
the prothallus 

{Optional) In Equisetineae, Equisetum 

In Lycopodineae, Selaginella (or Isoetes). (Optional) Lyco- 
podium 
F Gymnosperms 

Pinus or equivalent 

lO 



148 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

G Angiosperms 

A monocotyledon and a dicotyledon, to be studied with ref- 
erence to the homologies of their parts with those in the 
above groups ; together with representative plants of six of 
the leading subdivisions and principal families of angio- 
sperms (preferably Liliaceae, Rosaceae or Ranunculaceae, 
Violaceae, Labiatae, Leguminosae, Compositae) 
Classification should include a study of the primary subdivis- 
ions of the above groups based on the comparison of the types 
with other (preferably) living or preserved material. The prin- 
cipal subdivision of the Angiosperms, grouped on the Engler 
and Prantl system, should be understood. 

The ability to use manuals for the determination of the spe- 
cies of flowering plants is not considered essential in this 
course, though it is desirable. It should not be introduced to 
the exclusion of any part of the course, but may well be made 
voluntary work for those showing a taste for it. It should not 
be limited to learning names of plants, but should be made a study 
in the plan of classification as well. 

The preparation of an herbarium is not required nor recom- 
mended, except as voluntary work for those with a taste for 
collecting. If made, it should not constitute a simple accumu- 
lation of species, but should represent some distinct idea of 
plant associations, or of morphology, or of representation of 
the groups, etc. 

ADVANCED ZOOLOGYi 

A student should be qualified for laboratory work, demonstra- 
tions, and by the use of textbooks to answer questions on all 
the topics in the syllabus excepting those marked Optional. He 
should also prepare an indexed laboratory notebook in which 
stress is to be laid upon accurate drawings and precise expres- 
sive descriptions. This notebook should contain outline draw- 
ings, carefully labeled, of the external and internal structure of 
a protozoan, a coelenterate, an annelid, a decapod crustacean, 
and a vertebrate [see C below], together with labeled draw- 
ings of the external structure of at least three other animals 

o 

(preferably an insect, a mollusk, and a second vertebrate). 
The laboratory book should also contain carefully prepared notes 



1 The syllabus in advanced zoology is based upon the report of a com- 
mittee of the American Society of Zoologists, Eastern Branch. 



ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 149 

on the forms enumerated above, and descriptions of other ani- 
mals used for demonstrations [see A below]. In rating the 
notebook no credit will be given for dictated work, lecture 
notes, or drawings copied from charts and textbooks. Work 
done outside the laboratory should be marked home work. 

A student taking the Department's examinations must pre- 
pare a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his 
answer paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the 
index must bear ( i ) the teacher's indorsement certifying that 
it is a true abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's 
rating of the notebook based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks 
not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance requirement 
must be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the call 
of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to the 
completion of the course. 

The following outline includes the principles of zoology that 
are indispensable to a general survey of the science. It is not 
intended to intlicate the order of study of the topics; this must 
be left to the teacher and the textbook. 

A The general natural history — including external structure 
in relation to adaptations, life histories, geographical range, 
relations to other animals and to plants, and economic relations 
— of comm-on vertebrates and invertebrates so far as repre- 
sentatives of these groups are obtainable in the locality where 
the course is given. (The types suggested are a mammal, 
bird, lizard,' snake, turtle, newt, frog, dogfish (or other 
shark), bony fish, clam, snail, common crustaceans, spiders, 
myriapods, insects representing at least five orders, starfish, 
earthworm, hydra, sea anemone, paramecium.) Actual 
examination of these common animals should be supple- 
mented by reading, giving natural history information about 
them and their relatives.^ It is not expected that there will 
be time for making extensive notebook records of this natural 
history work. So far as time permits, drawings should be 
made and notes written, but most of the work along this line 
should take the form of laboratory demonstrations. 
B The classification of animals into phyla and leading classes 
(except the modern subdivisions of the worms) and the great 



1 A large part of this natural history information will be gained from 
the nature study of the elementary school and from the course given in 
the first vear of nigh school. 



150 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

characteristics of these groups. In the case of insects and 
mammals the characteristics of the orders. The teaching 
of classification should be by practical work so as to train 
the pupil to recognize animals and to point out the chief tax- 
onomic characteristics. The meaning of species, genera and 
larger groups should be developed by constructive practical 
work with representatives of insect or vertebrate orders. 
C The general plan of internal structure, not the anatomical 
minutiae, of one vertebrate (preferably frog or fish) in gen- 
eral comparison with the human body; an arthropod (prefer- 
ably a decapod) ; an annelid (earthworm or Nereis) ; a coel- 
enterate (hydroid, hydra or sea anemone) ; a protozoon (a 
ciliate, and amoeba when possible). In place of any of above 
types not locally available there may be substituted a second 
vertebrate, a mollusk, an insect or an echinoderm. The func- 
tions of the chief tissues and their positions in the body of a 
vertebrate should be pointed out. (Optional) Tissues should 
be examined first with the unaided eye, in such a structure as 
a frog's leg, and then with a microscope a demonstration 
should be given of the relations of cells and intercellular sub- 
stance in epithelium and cartilage, and if possible in other 
tissues. 
D (i) The general physiology of above types, involving the 
essentials of digestion, absorption, circulation (respiration), 
cell metabolism, secretion, excretion and nervous functions. 
This should apply comparatively to the essentials of elemen- 
tary work in human physiology. Demonstrations and ex- 
periments, such as are suggested in high school textbooks 
on human physiology, should be introduced, or recalled if 
not previously well presented in elementary physiology, in 
connection with the discussion of the chief functions. So 
far as practicable structure and function should be studied 
together. 
(2) (Optional) Comparison of the general life processes in 
animals and plants (in connection with botany if zoology 
is first studied). 
E The very general features of a sexual reproduction of a pro- 
tozoon (preferably Paramoecium) ; alterations of generations 
in hydroids ; reproduction and regeneration of Hydra ; the 
very general external features of embryological development 
in a fish or frog; and the most interesting features of develop- 



ADVANCED ZOOLOGY 



151 



ment in the case of other animals studied. (Optional) The 
general cellular nature (not centrosomes and the like) of 
germ cells, fertilization and cell division in developing eggs 
should, so far as possible, be demonstrated and briefly de- 
scribed. 

F The prominent evidences of relationship, suggesting evolu- 
tion, within such groups as the decapods, the insects, and the 
vertebrates, should be demonstrated. A few facts indicating 
the struggle for existence, adaptation to environment, varia- 
tions of individuals and man's selective influence should be 
pointed out; but the factors of evolution and the discussion of 
its theories should not be attempted. 

G (Optional) Some leading facts regarding the epoch-making 
discoveries of biological history and the careers of such 
eminent naturalists as Darwin, Huxley, Pasteur and Agassiz 
should be presented. 



GROUP III (concluded) 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

This syllabus has been prepared after repeated conferences with 
some of the best known teachers of physical geography in high 
school, normal school and university, who on urgent request have 
courteously contributed suggestion, advice and material. 

The outline is intended to suggest work for 190 class exercises 
and in conformity to general opinion is expressed quite in detail. 
It is not expected that teachers will place equal emphasis on all the 
divisions or that students on completing the course will be equally 
familiar with all the topics. Such parts of astronomy and of 
geology as are more closely related to the subject and are thought 
more suitable for students in secondary schools are included. 

In view of the recommendation of the N. E. A. committee it 
is suggested that as much time be devoted to the study of the 
land as is devoted to the study of the rest of the subject herein out- 
lined. At every step the relation of man to the topic under con- 
sideration and the manner in which he is affected by it should be 
carefully noted as this is the important aspect of the study. 
It is thought that not less than one class exercise with its accom- 
panying study period, consecutive if possible, should be devoted 
each week to laboratory work. In this time the student should per- 
form exercises having an aggregate value of at least 40 selected 
from a list not essentially different from the one given. It is 
suggested that the class accompanied by the teacher make field 
excursions to the number of not less than four in the fall and four 
in the spring. 

The results of laboratory and field work with the dates should 
be carefully recorded by the student in a notebook, of which an 
accurate index should be prepared by the student. 

A student taking the Department's examination must prepare a 
copy of this index and attach it to his answer paper at the time 
of the examination. This copy of the index must bear the teacher's 
indorsement certifying that it is a true abstract of the student's 
work, and the teacher's rating of the student's laboratory and field 
work based upon a scale of 20. Notebooks, not submitted to col- 
leges as a part of the entrance requirement, must be accessible to 
the inspectors and be subject to the call of the Department for a 
period of six months subsequent to the completion of the course. 

152 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 



153 



The earth as a planet 

I Relation tO' solar system, the nebular hypothesis 

1 Relation of sun to earth: heat, light 

2 Relation of other planets to earth ; distinguished from stars 

3 Relation of moon to earth : nature, light, phases, eclipses of 
the moon 

II Shape: oblate spheroid 

1 Evidences : change of visible constellations with change of 
latitude, curved shadow on moon, increase of horizon with 
increase of observer's altitude, upper parts of vessel seen 
farthest, variation of time with longitude, weight of a body 
nearly constant but increasing slightly with latitude 

2 Consequences : some of above evidences, necessity for com- 
merce, weight, ease of movement, etc. 

III Size 

1 Measurements : polar and equatorial diameters, circumference 

2 Relation of gravity: effect on human life and interests 

IV Motions 

1 Rotation : time, direction, distance from sim at different 

periods of the year, axis, poles, equator 

a Results and evidences : apparent daily motion of all heavenly 
bodies about earth or polestar, division of time into day or 
night, effects on habits of life, bulging at equator and con- 
sequent flattening at poles, deflection of currents in water 
and of winds, determination of longitude 

b Directions : north, toward ( i ) a point on the horizon, 
(2) a point in the heavens; (what is the difference between 
true north and compass north?) south, the opposite of north; 
east, direction toward a point on the horizon; west, the 
opposite of east 

2 Revolution : time, direction, distance 

a Orbit: shape, sun at one of the foci, plane of orbit, equinox 
and solstice used to designate both position and time 

b Inclination of axis 

c Results of inclination of axis and revolution : change of 
seasons involving variation in period and angle of insolation, 
location of tropics and polar circles, and the distribution of 
sunlight at different seasons in each of the mathematical 
zones 



154 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

V Determining location of places 

1 Latitude : definition, use 

a Determination of latitude : by altitude of polestar, by altitude 
of sun on meridian. Determine roughly, by plumb and level 
with card protractor and pin to cast shadow; accurately, by 
sextant or quadrant 

h Establishing a meridian: by direction of polestar, by short- 
est shadow of vertical rod on horizontal plane, by use of 
compass 

c Increase in length of degrees toward poles 

2 Longitude : definition, prime meridian, use 

a Determination of longitude: by chronometer and telegraph 
h Decrease in length of degrees toward the poles 

VI Time 

1 Solar day : mean solar time 

2 Civil day : from midnight to midnight 

3 Conventional day : beginning at international date line 

4 Standard time in the United States and Canada 

5 Relation of longitude and time 

VII Magnetism 

I Properties of a magnet; the earth a magnet: magnetic poles 
and meridians, magnetic declination, mariners compass, dip- 
ping needle 

VIII Maps and map projection 

1 Advantages and disadvantages of maps as compared with charts 
and models 

2 Necessity of projection 

3 Interpretation of simple projections such as Mercator's, stero- 
graphic, orthographic 

4 Scales : variation according to purpose. Lack of scale on Mer- 
cator map 

5 Use of contour lines, hachure lines, or of varied colors to show 
relief 

The air 
I Atmosphere 

1 Definition 

2 Function of air as a whole: diffuses light; conducts sound; 
enables birds to fly; reduces weight of bodies immersed in it; 
retains heat ; by its movements produces waves and ocean cur- 
rents, moves ships, drives windmills, transports moisture and 
light objects, destroys property and life 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 55 

II Composition of air: mechanical mixture, general properties, 

distribution 

1 Oxygen 

a Nature, relative abundance, distribution 
h Function: necessary to animal life;, oxidation, rusting, 
burning 

2 Nitrogen 

a Nature, relative abundance, distribution 

b Function : dilutes oxygen, enricbes soi!e through medium of 
nitrogen-gathering plants 

3 Carbon dioxide 

a Nature, relative abundance, distribution 

h Function : necessary to pljint life, action when dissolved in 
water 

4 Water vapor 

a Nature, origin, relative abundance, variation in amount as 

influenced by time and place 
h Function: necessary to both plant and animal life, source of 

clouds and precipitation 

5 Dust 

a Nature and effects : influences color of sky ; promotes pre- 
cipitation, decomposition and disease 

III Pressure and density 

1 Relation of pressure to density and to temperature 

2 Evidences of pressure, distinction between pressure and weight, 
weight of a given volume of air at sea level 

3 Measurement of pressure. Mercurial barometer. Aneroid 
barometer 

4 Relation of pressure to altitude 

5 Variation in pressure at constant level 

a Station constant with time varied, pressure curve 

h Time constant with station varied, isobars, barometric 

gradient 
c Isobaric charts : for the world for January and July, cyclone 

or low and anticyclone or high 

IV Temperature 

1 Temperature and heat distinguished 

2 Sources of heat : sun, internal heat of earth 

3 Measurement of temperature 

a Liquid thermometers : construction, scales, maximum and 
minimum. Wet and dry bulb 



156 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Metallic thermometers : construction 
c Thermograph : construction and use 

4 Different capacities of land, water, and air for absorbing, re- 
flecting and transmitting the heat of insolation 

5 Ways in which air is warmed and cooled 

6 Conditions affecting temperature 

a Distribution of heat: accompanying alternation of day and 
night and change of seasons 

b Pressure : general association of lows with high temperature 
and of highs with low temperature 

c Latitude: decrease of about 1° F. for increase of one degree 
in latitude 

d Altitude: decrease of about 1° F. for increase of 300 feet 
in altitude 

e Bodies of water 

/ Cloudiness 

g Prevailing winds 

h Exposure: sunny slopes, valleys, relative position of moun- 
tains 

7 Variation in temperature 

a Station constant with time varied, temperature curve, time 

of maximum and minimum 
b Time constant with station varied, isotherms, temperature 

gradient 
c Isothermal charts : for the world for January and July, heat 

equator, cold pole, crowded isotherms 

8 Heat belts : boundaries ; polar caps 

V Movements of air 

I Definition : winds, currents 
, 2 Classification of winds as to origin 

a Terrestrial : cause, kind of motion, where found, prevailing 

westerlies 
b Cyclonic winds : causes, different kinds, paths. In this work 

make liberal use of the weather maps. 
c Continental winds : in summer and winter ; sea and land, 
valley and mountain breezes, by day and night 

3 Deflection of winds from barometric gradient to right in 
northern hemisphere and to left in southern hemisphere, 
Ferrel's law 

4 Migration of terrestrial wind belts ; monsoons, lagging behind 
the sun 



PHYSICAL c;eo(;raphy 157 

VI Humidity 

1 Absolute and relative ; dew-point and its relation to tempera- 
ture ; measurement and instruments, hygrometer, psychrometer 

2 Condensation 

a Causes : changes in temperature and pressure, increase asso- 
ciated with ascending currents, dryness associated with de- 
scending 

b Forms : clouds ; fogs ; dew ; frost ; precipitation, rain, snow, 
hail and sleet 

c Distribution : causes, winds, barriers ; results, deserts, semi- 
arid and well watered regions 

d Measurement : rain gage 

e Rains : cyclonic, tropical, monsoon 

VII Weather and climate 

1 Elements : temperature, pressure, precipitation, cloudiness, 
winds, impurities in the air 

2 Controlling factors : latitude ; altitude ; distance from ocean or 
other large body of water ; position with reference to moun- 
tains, terrestrial wind belts, paths of lows and highs 

3 Lows and highs : relation to local winds, precipitation and 
temperature 

4 Weather maps 

d Construction and distribution by the United States govern- 
ment 
b Interpretation 

5 Forecasting: limits and benefits 

6 Climatic belts and regions 

VIII Electric and light phenomena 

1 Lightning 

2 Rainbow, colors of sky 

3 Aurora 

The ocean 

I Area, distribution, characteristics, functions 

II Sea water: cause of saltness 
Varying composition and density 

III Depth : maximum and average 
Sounding and dredging 

IV Temperature : sources of heat and elements controlling tem- 

perature, horizontal and vertical variations 



158 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

V Movements of ocean waters 

1 Wave movements 

a Causes : winds, influence of moon and sun, seismic disturb- 
ances 

b Movements of wave form and of water particles in wave 

c Parts : crest, trough 

d Form : height, length 

e Rollers, breakers, surf, undertow, and their causes 

/ Effects of wind waves : modify shore line ; aerate water ; 
destroy sea walls, docks and vessels ; eft'ects modified by 
use of oil; furnish power to ring bells, Blow wTiistles, pump 
water, etc. 

g Interval of tides (tide waves) ; lagging behind moon, estab- 
lishment of the port, unequal period of rising and falling 

h Varieties and stages of tides : spring, neap, flood, ebb, high 
water, low water, slack water 

i Modifications of tide waves : bores, races, tides in special 
places 

j Effects of tides : modify shore line, prevent stagnation of 
waters in harbors, carry waste out to sea, affect navigation, 
open inlets in reefs and bars, bring food to fixed forms of 
animal life, furnish power to tide mills and for raising 
heavy weights, as ships and bridges 

k Earthquake waves : effects 

2 Currents and drifts 

a Defined, contrasted with waves 

b General movements in all oceans : 'whirls with center calm, 
sargasso sea 

c Exciting and modifying causes : prevailing winds ; rotation 
of the earth, Ferrel's law ; obstruction by shore lines 

d Atlantic currents: equatorial and counter equatorial cur- 
rents, gulf stream, Greenland and Labrador currents, 
antarctic drift 

e Effects: modify climate, Alaska, British Isles, Labrador; 
transport icebergs, icepacks and floe ice, of which note ori- 
gin, characteristics and dangers ; distribute plant and animal 
Hfe;* supply driftwood to shores destitute of growing timber; 
affect navigation 

VI The ocean floor 

1 Rehef : compared with that of land, character, cause 

2 Origin and composition of material 



PHYSICAI GEOGRAPHY 1 59 

a On continental shelf : chiefly washings from land, gravel, 
shingle, sand and mud, and remains of organic forms. Life 
in this region 
b In deep water : remains of minute marine life 
c In deepest water: volcanic and meteoric dust, red clay 
VII Life in ocean 

Water other than ocean 

I Source: precipitation, rainfall 

II DispKDsal 

1 Evaporation : controlling factors, amount, efl^ect on tempera- 
ture 

2 Sinking into the earth ; ground water 

Position : depth below surface of the earth 

b Destructive action : erosion and corrasion by its rivers, falls 
and lakes ; solvent action increased by carbon dioxide in 
solution, effects on salt and limestone, caverns and life in 
them, sink or shallow holes 

c Constructive action : deposits as veins, stalactites, stalag- 
mites 

d Reappearance : springs, wells, artesian wells, mineral springs, 
hot springs, geysers, deposits on reappearing 

3 Run-off : small streams, rivers 

a Correct ideas: river, source,* banks, bed, mouth, basin, 
system, divide, slope, base level 

b Work of rivers : drainage of water and waste ; corrasion of 
bed-producing valleys, falls, potholes, alluvial terraces ; 
corrasion of banks producing meanders, oxbow lakes; widen- 
ing of flood plain ; transportation of drift on surface, stone 
and pebbles by rolling along bottom, sand and mud in sus- 
pension, salt and lime in solution ; grinding, polishing and 
comminuting load 

c Normal cycle in life history of a river; youth characterized 
by falls, rapids, lakes, V-shaped valleys, origin of falls and 
rapids ; recession of upstream, grade reaches between falls, 
economic importance of falls, location of cities ; maturity 
when previous features have disappeared ; old age charac- 
terized by flood plains, oxbow lakes, elevation of river bed 
aff'ecting tributaries and distributaries, natural levees, deltas 
and conditions favoring delta formation 



l6o THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d Cycle interrupted and new cycle introduced : by depression 
producing drowned valleys, bays, estuaries, and filled valleys ; 
by elevation producing revived rivers. A really clear under- 
standing of c and d above can be hoped for only when local 
examples may be studied. 

e Lakes: (i) relation to rivers; (2) formation: by uplift; by 
natural progress of river cycle; by glacial action; by acci- 
dent; by volcanic action; (3) water: generally fresh, becom- 
ing salt if evaporation is large in proportion to outflow; (4) 
destruction; (5) function: store and purify water, regulate 
river flow, promote navigation, affect climate 

/ Life in rivers and lakes : compared with life in ocean 

III Glaciers 

1 Kinds : continental, ice sheet, alpine 

2 Present and former ice sheets : glacial periods, evidences 

3 Formation : manner and needed conditions 

4 Movement : causes, rate, advance, recession 

5 Moraines : source, classification 

6 Work: corrasion, scratching, grooving, polishing; transporta- 
tion ; deposition ; plowing out valleys parallel to movement, 
filling valleys not parallel to movement ; formation of terminal 
moraines, kames, eskers, drumlins 

7 Disposal : melting in place giving rise to rivers, carried away 
by ocean currents as icebergs 

IV Ground water: water supply 

The land 

I Extent, distribution 

II Surface : compared with the floor of the ocean 

III Rock 

1 Definition 

2 Classification 

a By origin : ( i ) Sedimentary : silicious and argillaceous sand- 
stone; conglomerate as pudding stone, shale, limestone. (2) 
Igneous: trap rock as basalt, volcanic rock as lava. (3) 
Metamorphic : granite, gneiss, mica, schist, marble, anthracite 

coal 

b By structure : unstratified, stratified 

3 Common rocks : study to secure ready identification 

IV Common minerals: quartz, amethyst, agate, opal, feldspar, 

hornblende, mica, garnet, calcite, salt, sulphur, gypsum, 
graphite 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY l6l 

V Soil : formation, residual, transported ; varieties, adaptations 

Fertility, depending constituents and physical condition 

VI Change in altitude and results of change 

1 Continents, ocean basins, changes in local topography of land 
surface and ocean floor 

2 Volcanism 

a Probable causes 

b Phenomena of eruption 

c Products of eruption : gaseous, liquid, solid, economic value 
of 

d Classification of cones: ash (steepest), lava (flattest), ash 
and lava (intermediate) 

e Volcanic sheets and necks 

/ Distribution of active volcanos: proximity to ocean, associa- 
tion with young mountains 

3 Erosion, transportation, deposition 

a Causes : gravity, change in temperature, chemism, moisture, 
wind, wave, current, stream, sand driven by wind, plant and 
animal life 

b Results: modification of the larger features of relief pro- 
duced by other causes, in general increasing the strength of 
relief to maturity, then decreasing the strength to old age 

VII Geographic cycle 

VIII Forms of relief 

I Plains : regions of slight elevation, fairly smooth surface, gen- 
erally relatively horizontal strata 

a Coastal plain : uplifted continental shelf. ( i ) Narrow : 
simple drainage. (2) Broad: production of belts, artesian 
wells. (3) Embayed: drowning of former marginal land. 
(4) Ancient: now often far from ocean. (5) Economic 
importance of coastal plains 

b Alluvial plain : built up by river at flood stages. ( i ) Change 
in position of stream in flood plain, meandering, migration. 
(2) Slope : away from stream, high front lands, swampy 
back lands. (3) Drainage: turning of tributaries down- 
stream as they enter flood plain, distributaries. (4) Fitness 
for life : depending upon climatic position as well as a fertile 
and easily worked soil, oftentimes unhealthful and in danger 
of overflow. (5) Protection from overflow: levees, outlets 

c Lacustrine plain, (i) Filled and drained lake basins, fer- 
tility fitness for life. (2) Dessicated lake basins: salt plains, 
characterize arid regions 



l62 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d Glacial plain, (i) Cause: chiefly continental glaciers. (2) 
Deposits: unassorted and unstratified, till. (3) Lakes: nu- 
merous, due to youth of plain 

e Plain of denudation peneplain : origin, characteristics 

2 Plateaus, elevated plains 

a Dissected plateaus, canyons 

b Old plateaus, mesas, buttes 

c Broken plateaus : faults, fault line, fault plain 

d Economic importance of plateaus 

3 Mountains 

a Definition : distinguished from plateaus 

b Causes : diastrophism, volcanism, erosion 

c Classification. ( i ) Block : due to uplift and faulting, anal- 
ogy to broken plateaus. (2) Folded: both simple and com- 
plex, probably due to lateral pressure producing anticlines 
and synclines; anticlinal valleys and synclinal ridges. (3) 
Massive 

d Life history of mountains 

e Height : dependent on initial elevation, vigor of eroding 
agents, resistance of rocks, age of mountains 

/ Mountains as barriers : retard or prevent uniform distribution 
of temperature and rainfall, distribution of plants and ani- 
mals, commerce and the spread of civilization ; conservative- 
ness of the inhabitants of mountains 

g Climate 

h Economic value : health resorts, timber reserves, mineral and 
rock wealth 
IX Shore lines 

1 Harbors 

a Classification : river, delta, estuary, fiord, lagoon, sand bar, 

sand spit, atoll, crater 
b Advantages and disadvantages of various classes 
c Economic importance : location of cities 

2 Regular shore line resulting from 

a Migration of shore line seaward due to movement of earth's 

crust 
b Migration of shore line seaward by building of sand reefs 

parallel to shore, filling lagoons and inlets ; cusp and crescent 

outlines 
c Migration of shore line seaward by formation of river deltas 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 163 

d Smoothing action of waves and currents producing sea cliffs, 

bay-head and barrier beaches, land-tied islands 
e Smoothing action of ice foot in high latitudes 

3 Irregular short line: resulting from migration of shore line 
landward due to movement of earth's crust ; characteristics as 
islands, caves, drowned valleys, promontories 

4 Modification of shore lines by plant and animal life 

n Plant life : mangrove trees in tropical ocean, marsh and eel- 
grass in other localities 

b Animal life, specially corals, (i) Fringing reefs. (2) Bar- 
rier reefs: relation to fringing reefs. (3) Atolls 

5 Lake shore lines: miniatures of ocean shore lines 

6 Abandoned ancient shore lines : beaches and benches 

7 Sand dunes along the shore 

II 



164 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



LABORATORY EXERCISES IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 

The numbers in curves indicate the values assigned to the exercises. 

1 a Construct an ellipse to scale showing the correct shape of the 

earth's orbit. 
b Show the position of the earth at equinoxes and at solstices 

with dates. 
c Distribution of sunlight at each of these dates. 
d Direction of rotation and revolution ; distance of the earth from 

the sun at aphelion and at perihelion (2). 

2 a Construct diagrams showing the positions of the earth, sun and 

moon at the several phases of the moon. 
b Position of the moon during the month with reference to the 

earth's equator. 
c Explanation of phases and reasons why eclipses .do not occur 

every month ( i ) . 

3 a Construct diagrams showing partial and total lunar eclipses 

(I). 
b Construct diagrams showing partial, total and annular solar 

eclipses (i). 

c Calculate the length of the shadows of the earth and the moon 

and the diameter of the earth's shadow where the moon 

passes through it (i). 

4 a Study Eratosthenes's method of finding the size of the earth. 
b Determine the length of the circumference of a circle by this 

method. 
c Check any error by finding the length of the circumference by 
simple geometrical means (2). 

5 a Construct a diagram showing the determination of the length 

of the solar, the lunar and the sidereal day. 
b Comparison of values with an explanation (2). 

6 Determine the length of day at any latitude at any time of the 
year (2). 

7 Find the place of sunrise and of sunset at any latitude at any 
time of the year (i). 

8 a Plot the curves of a shadow cast by an upright post at any 

latitude at the time of the solstices and of the equinoxes. 
b Interpretation of curves (3). 

9 a Find a north and south line. 

b Find the civil time of local noon (2). 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 165 

10 a Measure the angle of altitude of trees, towers and sun. 
b Construct these angles ( i ) . 

11 Determine relative heat received from the sun at different alti- 
tudes (2). 

12 Construct and interpret sunrise and sunset curves (i). 

13 Determine the observer's latitude from: 
a Sun's altitude. 

b Elevation of north pole (2). 

14 a Make a Mercator's projection of latitude and longitude lines. 
b Sketch in continents from a globe (2). 

15 Make a modified Lambert's projection fixing the meridians, 
parallels, tropics and polar circles (2). 

16 a Make an orthographic polar projection of the northern hem- 

isphere locating the Tropic of Cancer and the polar circle. 
b Locate all lines showing latitude and longitude (2). 

17 Interpret a contour map as to drainage, distances, slopes and 
relative heights (2). 

18 Make vertical sections from contour maps (i). 

19 Make a contour map from given data ( i). 

20 Make interpolations between meridians and parallels (i). 

21 Experiment with Foucault's pendulum (2). 

22 Determine altitudes by use of barometer (i). 

23 Determine the dew-point and calculate from data the relative 
and the absolute humidity (2). 

24 Account for differences in isothermal charts of the world for 
January and July (2). 

25 Account for position and migration of heat equator and cold 
pole (2). 

26 a Study isobaric charts of the world for January and July. 
b Account for terrestrial winds in these months (2). 

27 Interpret records of thermograph, barograph and wind direction 
and study their mutual relations (2). 

28 a Keep for one month a daily record of pressure, temperature, 

wind direction, state of sky, humidity, location of approaching 

low and precipitation. 
b Plot pressure and temperature curves. 
c Study of mutual relations of conditions recorded (5). 

29 Study the general wind direction about centers of low and high 
areas from weather maps ( i ) . 

30 Find the direction and average rate of the progressive move- 
ment of a storm center in the United States (2). 



l66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

31 Make an isobar map of the United States from furnished 
data (2). 

32 Make an isotherm map of the United States from furnished 
data (2). 

33 Study the distribution of cloudiness and rainfall about several 
storm centers ( i ) . 

34 Forecast weather conditions from furnished data (2). 

35 Study cold waves and northeasters ( i ) . 

36 Plot curve representing daily drainfall for one year at a given 
station from given data (2). 

37 Plot tidal curve for a given station for the month of January 
from given data (i). 

38 Interpret the tidal curve as to spring and neap tides and diurnal 
inequality (i). 

39 Test sea water for density, taste and amount of gas and of solid 
matter in solution (2). 

40 Construct a diagram showing high, low, spring and neap tides 
and make explanation ( i ) . 

41 Study trade routes across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans from 
pilot charts (i). 

42 Make an orderly arrangement of five minerals to show a scale 
of hardness (2). 

43 Study quartz, feldspar, mica and calcite as types of rock-form- 
mg minerals (2). 

44 Study two ores of each of the following: iron, copper, lead and 
zinc (2). 

45 Study samples of soil (2). 

46 Study salt, sulphur_, gypsum and graphite as types of non- 
metallic minerals of direct economic value (2). 

47 Study 8 or 10 common rocks (2). 

48 Construct a river profile (2). 

49 Study regular shore lines, Atlantic City topographic sheet (2). 

50 Study irregular shore lines. Boothbay, Me. topographic sheet 

(2). 

51 Study glacial topography, Whitewater topographic sheet (2). 

52 Make a collection of glaciated and of water-washed pebbles (2). 

53 Study the Appalachian mountains, Harrisburg sheet (2). 

54 Study volcanic effects, Mt Shasta sheet (2). 

55 Study river development, a young region, Ottawa, 111. sheet (2). 

56 Study river development, a mature region, Charleston, W. Va. 
sheet (2). 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 1 67 

57 Study river development, an old region, Caldwell, Kan. sheet 
(2). 

58 Study Mississippi river, upper course. Savanna, 111. sheet (2). 

59 Study Mississippi river, meanders, Mississippi river sheet no. 
14 (2). 

60 Study Mississippi river, natural levees, Donaldsonville, La. 
sheet (2). 

61 Study Niagara falls, survey and maps (2). 

62 Study a drowned river valley (2). 

63 Study a plain, Wicomico, Md. sheet (2). 

64 Study a plateau, Kaibab, Ariz, sheet (2). 

65 Study distribution of coniferous, deciduous and tropical forests, 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (i). 

66 Study distribution of areas producing the most important grains 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (i). 

67 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fiber 
plants and the relation of such distribution to climate (i). 

68 Study distribution of areas producing the most important fruits 
and the relation of such distribution to climate (i). 

69 Study distribution of animal life and its relation to climate (i). 

70 Study distribution of human population as to density and the 
relation it bears to soil, climate, water power, harbors etc. (i). 

FIELD EXCURSIONS 

In making field excursions the points to be studied will depend 
on the locality. Such topics as clouds and their movements, weather- 
ing, erosion, transportation, deposition, river currents, waves, tides, 
rocks, minerals, foldings, faults, dikes, evidences of upheaval and 
subsidence, natural slope of dififerent materials, land forms, location 
of highways, soil, falls, rapids, water power, harbors and distribu- 
tion of plant and animal life are of special importance. 



GROUP IV 

HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE 
HISTORY 

A foreword — the proper use of the history syllabus 

In making this syllabus, the authors have had first in mind the 
proper study of history, not the passing of examinations. They 
have desired to encourage patient, thoughtful, many-sided effort; 
to reveal historical relations that might not be obvious in the close 
study of a single textbook; to invite the use of the library and 
notebook ; to show the young teacher how to teach historj^ the 
immature student how to learn history. Moreover in a field so 
large, so new, so filled with opportunities for real culture, a broad 
syllabus is much to be preferred to a narrow one. 

It may assist some to point out that the syllabus in each field 
contains tJiree lines of analysis ; that the general surveys contain 
tzuo of these lines ; that every student should be thoroughly familiar 
with the general surveys including even the dates ; that every 
student in the class should be able to show some fair understanding 
of each topic in the second analysis and should be able to relate it 
both to preceding and subsequent topics. Within the broad horizon 
thus indicated, teachers ought to find and to use a large freedom. 
A teacher of even moderate skill ought sometimes boldly to omit 
or rapidly pass over certain portions of a syllabus. By the use of 
type lessons, i. e. the selection of one settlement, one battle, one 
political or military campaign for intensive study, he may often 
impart to pupils enthusiasm and a power to study other topics for 
themselves. Indeed in ideal history teaching, the variety of the 
work would be limited only by the number of students in the class. 

A limited number of readings has been assigned for each field, 
and some question or questions in regard to these readings will 
form a part of future examinations. (See page 288.) 

Attention is also directed to the use of the starred topics for the 
three hour courses in ancient and English history and to the credits 
allowed for approved library and notebook work. 

In December 1880, the University of the State of New York 
sent out to academic schools a summary statement of examinations 
in which were definite suggestions in regard to the scope of the 

168 



HISTORY 169 

instruction advisable in the different fields of academic study. These 
suggestions were submitted to the academic schools with a request 
for careful consideration and criticisms and evidently form the 
basis of succeeding Regents syllabuses. The fields of history rec- 
ommended in these suggestions of 1880 were American, English, 
Greek, Roman, civics and economics, and the entire outlines for 
the six fields covered only four pages. 

In 1883 a. noted educator undertook the editorship of a pedagogic 
library and chose the subject of history for the initial volume be- 
cause he thought that no subject so widely taught was taught so 
poorly ; and it is significant that six university professors or dis- 
tinguished writers of history contributed to the contents of that 
volume. 

The estimate of history teaching made in 1883 is, perhaps, still 
valid ; but the intervening years have been a period of promise and 
progress. The publications referred to seem to mark the beginnings 
in this country, of cooperative effort to secure better secondary 
teaching in general and specially better teaching of history. The 
growth of cooperative spirit among history teachers may be traced 
in the formation of the Committee of Ten which met at the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin in 1892, in the Columbia Conference of 1896, 
in the appointment of the Committee of Seven, and its report of 
1899 and in the formation of history teachers associations in New 
England, in the North Central States, in Nebraska, California, 
Indiana, in several Southern States, and in the Middle States and 
Maryland. 

The results of these various efforts are as follows : a uniform 
course of history for secondary schools has been planned and widely 
adopted; uniform requirements for admission to college supple- 
mented by uniform entrance examinations have been provided; a 
movement to articulate the courses of college history with those of 
the high school has been started ; a syllabus of history for elemen- 
tary schools has been published by the Committee of Eight of 
the American Historical Association and a syllabus of secondary 
history by the Committee of Five of the same association is in prep- 
aration; tendencies to overemphasize the use of local history and 
sources in secondary schools have been checked ; better methods of 
history teaching are gaining ground in both high school and college ; 
the demand for specially trained history teachers is growing; better 
textbooks in all the fields of history have been abundantly provided. 



170 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

One of the most important results of these cooperative efforts 
was the pubhcation of a History Syllabus for Secondary Schools'^ 
prepared by a special committee of the New England History 
Teachers Association. This syllabus was with some modifications 
adopted by the committee charged with the revision of the history 
syllabus for New York State 1905. 

The syllabus of 1905 contains the following introductory state- 
ment: 

In presenting the following extended syllabus, it is not proposed 
to prescribe a larger amount of subject-matter as a burden for the 
memory. On the contrary there has been an earnest effort to select 
such topics in the various fields as are most susceptible and most 
worthy of assimilation ; to present historic happenings in their 
proper perspective ; to analyze historic movements and thus to show 
the relations of events that, to the pupil's mind, might seem iso- 
lated ; to provide a moderately large range of topics not for the 
sake of prescription but to encourage academic freedom ; to lead 
to the use of the notebook, the encyclopedia, the library, the atlas 
and collateral reading; to commend the good textbook not as a 
tyrant but as a guide. 

History teachers who have worked in accord with the paragraph 
quoted report that the syllabus of 1905 has been most helpful. Stu- 
dents, also, in large numbers have been aided by its careful analyses. 
Unfortunately inexperienced teachers and those who teach mainly 
for results in examinations have complained that the multiplicity 
of topics prevents the use of library and notebook and narrows 
their work to textbook recitations. For the benefit of these the 
most important topics in ancient and in English history have been 
starred that they may receive due emphasis. These starred topics 
will form the basis of 80 per cent of the questions on examination 
papers in the three hour courses. 

The course of European history offered in the syllabus of 1905, 
by reason of overcrowded curriculums, has been of little service. 
In 1909 only 373 answer papers in European history were written 
in all the schools. This course is therefore discontinued. 

T- History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Outlining the Four Years' 
Course in History Recommended by the Committee of Seven of the Ameri- 
can Historical Association by a Special Committee of the New England 
History Teachers Association; published by D. C. Heath & Co., Boston 
1904; published also in parts for the use of pupils; contains invaluable biblio- 
graphic references and suggestions for teachers and pupils. 



HISTORY 171 

In accord with recent recommendations of the Committee of Five 
of the American Historical Association, a six hour course of mod- 
ern history covering two years has been prepared. In New York 
State it is offered as an option for ancient and EngHsh history. 

Teachers are earnestly requested to weigh the merits of this new 
course, to give it a trial where conditions permit and to consider 
whether this or some similar course would be preferable to the less 
connected and more intensive courses of ancient and English 
history. 

In accord with the wishes of experienced teachers throughout 
the State, the syllabus of American history and the syllabus of 
civics have been revised, the better to emphasize industrial, social 
and economic topics and present governmental activities. It is de- 
sirable that the work as outlined in the syllabus be presented by 
the use of separate textbooks and separate recitation periods. The 
close relation between the two subjects should ever be kept in view 
by means of topical reviews and topical questions. 

Civics is not recommended as a separate high school study, nor 
is economics except for high schools that maintain commercial 
departments. To meet certain public needs separate examinations 
in these subjects will still be given. However, it is hardly possible 
to exaggerate the importance of the truth that no history is prop- 
erly taught in which economic and governmental conditions are not 
compared with present customs, present forms of government and 
present economic life. To a degree limited only by the pupil's 
ability to understand, civics and economics should be a part of all 
history teaching. 

Visual aids. It is of the utmost importance that pupils should 
project upon the mind the time, place and conditions in which 
historic events occurred. They should be trained to this end. The 
attitude of mind by which the pupil readily seeks to place himself 
in the very midst of the scenes he is studying about should be 
secured. To this end suitable aids to visualizing should be used, 
such as maps, plans, sketches, cartoons, copies of manuscripts and 
documents, pictures of persons, buildings and other structures, 
implements, utensils, wearing apparel, etc. A limited number of 
ideal drawings or paintings may be used but they should be true 
in spirit and executed by an artist of recognized merit. The Edu- 
cation Department has a large collection of such illustrative mate- 
rial in the form of lantern slides and photographs. These can be 
readily obtained by any school prepared to use them for class in- 



172 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



struction. Besides such aid the resourceful teacher will be able to 
find much useful illustrative material in textbook, reference books, 
magazines and elsewhere. 

The use of graphic representations and pictorial reproductions 
is not to be confined to young pupils, though it is expected that 
they will be most needed by such pupils. Visualizing historic scenes 
and events is always essential to correct thinking in history. The 
past is out of actual sight. It must be built up in the mind as a 
picture. Pupils of more training and experience should be able 
to form accurate mental pictures with fewer objective aids than 
beginners. But in any new field of historical study a certain amount 
of illustrative material is helpful and even essential for pupils of 
any degree of maturity. 

Courses. The following courses of history in the order given 
and with the prescribed time allotments are either required or 
recommended. 



Allotted year 

of the 

secondary 

course 



Minimum recita- 
tion time 



Maximum 

recitation 

time 



a Ancient history . 



Second 
or third 



3 periods a 
week 



5 periods 
a week 



h EngHsh history . 



Third 
or second 



3 periods a 
week 



5 periods 
a week 



^d United States history and civics . 



Fourth 
or third 



^120 periods a 

year 
80 periods a 

year 



c Modern history . 



Second 
and third 



3 periods a 

week 
3 periods a 

week 



^d United States history and civics . 



Fourth 
or third 



^120 periods a 

year 
80 periods a 

year 



I Recommended in general for high schools and required of all 
schools maintaining courses of study preparatory for entrance to 
normal or training school : a, b and d, or a, c and d. 



1 United States history and civics is a required subject in the last year of 
the course of all schools of senior or high school grade sharing in the appor- 
tionment of money for the payment of the tuition of nonresident academic 
students. 



HISTORY 173 

2 Required of all schools sharing in the apportionment for non- 
resident students as follows : 

Junior schools maintaining a two years' course, a 

Middle schools, a or b or c 

Senior schools, o or b or c, and d 

High schools, a, b and d, or c and d. 

Notebook and library work. Credits on examinations for cer- 
tified notebook and library work will be allowed as follows : a maxi- 
mum of 10 credits for a minimum of library work represented by 
30 notebook exercises in United States history and civics, and in 
the five hour courses in ancient and in English history; a maximum 
of 20 credits for a minimum of library work represented by 50 
notebook exercises in modern history if claimed on the final exam- 
ination in the six hour course. 

Requirements. Notebook and library work to be accepted for 
credits must meet the following requirements : 

1 It must be based on the map work and the assigned topics of the 
syllabus. 

2 It must not exhibit as notebook exercises, any work dictated 
by the teacher, and copied charts or graphic representations or 
analyses found in textbooks, in collateral reading or in other note- 
books except as specified in 3. 

3 Fifty per cent of the notebook exercises may consist of copied 
work as follows : 

a Copied maps 

b Filled in outline maps 

c Copied drawings 

d Selected illustrative material such as pictures, picture postal 
cards, facsimiles 

e Documents in civics such as warrants, ballots etc. 

/ A very limited number of exercises made up of (i) favorite 
quotations, gathered from various sources, illuminating 
either the whole field or some special topic or topics; (2) 
political watchwords; (3) definitions of words and phrases 
fre(|uently used but obscure in meaning to the untrained 
student. 

All the work mentioned in 3 should be accompanied, if possible, 
by references to the authorities from which it was obtained ; also 
by proper explanations showing its historic value or its relation to 
the topic studied. 



174 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

4 The following kinds of exercises and others of like nature are 
acceptable material for the remainder of the required notebook 
work : 

a Answers to search questions on secondary or source material 

b Synopses of brief selections of source material 

c Comparisons made by the pupil from material found in the 

text or elsewhere 
d Brief statements made by the pupils of things learned from 

collateral reading 
e Charts or graphic representations made by the pupil 
/ Characterizations based on historic incidents 
g Brief compositions representing original investigation or 

thought 
h Descriptions of historic excursions or visits to historic 

museums 
i Discussions or debates 
y One exercise showing the collateral reading done by the pupil 

during the year 

5 All work dictated by the teacher such as search questions, 
topical analyses, all work copied by the pupil except as indicated in 
3 preferably should appear on the left-hand page and must be 
plainly headed, " Dictated work " or " Copied work." It should 
never be counted as a notebook exercise. 

6 In general each notebook exercise should be a unit in itself. 
If notebook work is properly done each notebook will show a 

marked individuality and may well be characterized by originality, 
order, symmetry, neatness and good taste. Yet here a word of cau- 
tion is necessary. The notebook is a means to an end, not an end 
in itself. Unnecessary time should not be consumed in the mechan- 
ics of notebook making. Maps colored with pastels or divided by 
a system of markings show history as well as though carefully 
tinted with water colors. 

The importance of establishing correct habits by requiring exact 
and definite references should never be overlooked. 

One kind of exercise found to be of special value is the follow- 
ing : the teacher reads a few paragraphs from some book not access- 
ible to the class; the class attend carefully to the reading, taking- 
down only catchwords or headings, from which, after the reading 
is finished, digests may be made. 

7 Every notebook should contain an index at the beginning show- 
ing the title of each exercise and the page on which it may be 
found. 



HISTORY 175 

Index of notebook exercises 



No. of 

exercise TITLE OF EXERCISE 



8 When the notebook has been completed, the teacher should 
attach the following certificate to the inside of the front cover: 

High School N.Y. 

This notebook contains the record of notebook work and library- 
work done by in the 

High School under my supervision. 

[Signed] 

Teacher of 

9 A student taking the Department's examination must prepare 
a copy of the index of his notebook and attach it to his answer 
paper at the time of the examination. This copy of the index 
must bear (i) the teacher's indorsement certifying that it is a true 
abstract of the student's work, and (2) the teacher's rating of the 
notebook and library work based upon a scale of 10 for the one 
year courses ; on a scale of 20 for the two years' course. Note- 
books not submitted to colleges as a part of the entrance require- 
ment, must be accessible to the inspectors and be subject to the 
call of the Department for a period of six months subsequent to 
the completion of the course. 

ANCIENT HISTORY TO 800 A. D. 

The study of history is valuable in so far as it promotes culture, 
service and progress. A narrow teaching of historic events is there- 
fore almost useless. These truths are specially applicable to high 
school work in ancient history. The immaturity of pupils at once 
demands and makes difficult the attainment of cultural results; yet 
if the pupil obtained nothing from ancient history but a panorama 
of vivid mental pictures, an acquaintance with some of the heroes 
and patriots of the ancient world, a dawning consciousness of our 
heritage from the past, the study would be worth while. Some- 



176 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

what more than a mental picture gallery, however, may reasonably 
be expected. The problems appearing in , the ancient development 
of popular governments are comparatively simple if translated into 
modern terms and running comparisons with modern movements 
not only help to an understanding of ancient politics but stimulate 
interest in present civic conditions. 

The transition from the more or less local patriotic treatment of 
history in the elementary grades to the comprehensive study of peo- 
ples far distant in time and place will be made easier to the pupil 
if the teacher make early and full use of maps, pictures, stereopti- 
con slides and standard guidebooks. One is not likely here to err 
by excess. The wealth of illustrative material leaves slight excuse 
for faint or grossly inaccurate mental pictures of ancient life. 

In the introduction of the study, sufficient time should be taken 
to awaken interest ; therefore the use of several introductory topics 
is suggested. The axiom that the present can be understood only 
through a study of the past has its converse, that the past can be 
interpreted only through a knowledge of the present. If sufficient 
foundations are, at any point, wanting or weak, the defects must 
be made good. 

In the multitude of topics presented in the outline of 1905, cer- 
tain ones deserve emphasis and these have been starred. They will 
form the basis of 80 per cent of the questions in the examinations 
for the three hour course. 

Introductory topics 

A Geographic ideas of the ancients 

Tozer Classical Geography (primer), chapter I 
B The Nile, the Euphrates and the Mississippi valleys compared 

Consult encyclopedias 
C A tour to Mediterranean countries 

Illustrated with photographs or lantern slides. 
D Comparisons between life in Homeric days and the present : 
(a) the home and its furnishings: {h) farm life and prod- 
ucts; {c) industries; {d) social customs; {e) warfare; (/) 
religious ideals 

Fling. Source Book of Greek History, p. 1-28 
E The most beautiful myth of the ancients 

Guerber. Myths of Greece and Rome 
F The Hebrews in Egypt 

The Book of Exodus, chapters I-V 



HISTORY 



177 



Lists of required readings to be varied from year to year will be 
furnished on a separate sheet. Those for 1912-13 will be found on 
pages 288-300. One or more questions based on these required 
readings will be included in each examination. Questions calling 
for minute details will not be asked. 



1 ANCIENT HISTORY 




The oriental 
nations 



II 

Ancient' Hellas: 
early develop- 
ment, 2000(?)- 

750 B. c. 
Ill 

State and 
national 
development in 
Greece to the 
foreign wars, 

750-500 B. C. 

IV 
Foreign wars of 
the Greeks: 
independence, 

560-479 B. C. 

V 

The preeminence 
of Athens, 479- 

431 B. C. 



VI 

Wars between 
the Greek states: 
a century of 
strife, 461-362 
B. c; the Mace- 
donian invasion 



1 Introduction: scope and course of ancient 

history 

2 Egypt, 5ooo(?)-525 b. c. 

3 The Tigris-Euphrates valley, 5000 or earlier- 

538 B. c. 

4 Syria (I) The Phenicians 

5 Syria (II) The Hebrews 

6 Media and Persia, 85o(?)-5i4 b. c. 

7 Summary and review of the oriental nations 

8 The land and the Aegean basin 2 

9 The people: migration and expansion i 

10 The Epic or " Homeric " age, 1000-750 B. c. 

(approximately) 2 

11 " Greek reconstruction of early history " I 

12 The states, and the beginnings of leagues i 

13 Age of colonial enterprise i 

14 Order of political evolution i 

15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy I 

16 Growth of Athens: progress toward democ- 

racy 2 

17 Intellectual progress of Hellas, 500 B. c. 1 , 

18 Bonds of union j "^ 

19 Lydian and Persian conquests in Asia Minor 1 j 

20 Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt / 

21 The Persian invasion, 492-479 b. c. 3 

22 "The Punic invasion," 485-480 B. c: Car- 

thaginians in Sicily I 

23 The Delian League and the Athenian empire, 

477-461 B. c. 2 

24 The Periclean age and the Athenian democ- 

I racy, 461-431 b. c. 2 

I 25 Intellectual life; the Athenian genius i 

\ 26 The Athenian attempt at land empire, 461- 

445 B. c. I 

27 The Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b. c. i 

28 The new learning i 

29 The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 b. c. i 

30 The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371- 

362 B. c. I 

31 The western Greeks, 410-300 b. c. (approxi- 

mately) I 

32 Literature and art, 400-350 B. c. i 
[ 33 The rise of Macedon, 359-336 b. c. I I 



^ The following general survey and outlines of ancient history were copy- 
righted 1 90 1 and 1904 by Walter H. Gushing. 



178 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



I ANCIENT HISTORY (continued) 




VII 

The empire of 
Alexander ; 
" The mingling 
of the East and 
West." 

336-146 B. C. 



VIII 

Early Rome; 
and the Roman 
Republic to its 
supremacy in 
Italy. 
753(?)-264 B. c. 



IX 

Rome becomes 
supreme in the 
Mediterranean 
basin, 264-133 

B. C. 



X 

The ancient 
world under 
Roman rule 
during the 
change from the 
republic to the 
monarchy, 

133-31 B. C. 



34 The career of Alexander: conquests, charac 

ter, and achievements. 336-323 B. c. 

35 The Hellenistic period: disintegration of Alex 

ander's empire; the Hellenistic kingdoms 
and Hellenistic culture. 323-146 B. c. 

36 Greece to Roman intervention; attempts at 

federal government. 280-200 b. c. 

37 The land and the people 

38 Early Rome: sources of our knowledge; the 

legends and their value 

39 Regal Rome: government, religion, and 

society 

40 The early Republic: struggle between the 

classes; triumph of the plebians. 509(?)- 

286 B. C. 

41 The early Republic: the establishment of 

Rome's supremacy in Latium; wars with 
its neighbors. 509(?)-338 b. c. 

42 The conquest of Italy: wars with the Sam- 

nites and Greeks; organization. 338-264 

B.C. 

43 The struggle with Carthage for Sicily: the 

First Punic War, 264-241 b. c. 

44 " The extension of Italy to its natural boun- 

daries "; wars in Africa and Spain. 241- 

218 B. C. 

45 The struggle between Rome and Carthage 

for the supremacy in the West: the second 
and Third Punic Wars. 218-133 b. c. 

46 Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Medi- 

terranean: conquest of Greece and Asia. 

216-133 B. C. 

47 The organization of Rome's foreign con- 

quests: the provincial system 

48 The effects of conquests and the provincial 

system on society, politics, and manners 

49 The revolutionary attempts at reform under 

the Gracchi, 133-121 b. c. 

50 " The rule of the Restoration "; victories of 

Marius; Social War. 121-88 b. c. 

51 The struggle between Marius and Sulla; rees- 

tablishment of senatorial rule. 88-79 b. c. 

52 Pompey and Caesar: affairs in the East and 

at Rome; Caesar in Gaul; Civil War. 79- 
48 B. c. 

53 The rule of Caesar, 48-44 B. c. 

54 The struggle for the succession, 44-31 B. c. 

55 Roman culture and society in the " Cicer- 

onian age " 



1 The following general 
righted 1901 and 1904 by 



survey and outHnes of ancient history were copy- 
Walter H. Gushing. 



HISTORY 



179 



I ANCIENT HISTORY (concluded) 









n 

H 

2S 


+» X 

c « 
<u . 
" 


General survey of the field^ 


"^1 

C <U 
V 

" 6 






56 The establishment of the empire: constitu- 








tion; frontiers. 31 B. C.-14 A.D. 


I 






57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 A.D. 


2 


9 


XI 


58 The Roman Empire under the Good Em- 






The ancient 


perors, 96-180 A.D. 


2 




world under the 


59 The Roman Empire under the Soldier Em- 






Roman Empire, 


perors, 180-284 A. D. 






31 B. C.-375 A.D. 


60 The Roman Empire under the Absolute Em- 

perors, 284-375 A- D- 

61 The rise and triumph of Christianity 

62 The invasions, and the fall of the Western 

Empire, 376-476 a.d. 




7 


XII 


63 The West: continued invasions, and forma- 






The transition 


tion of Germanic states. 476-774 a.d. 






period from an- 


64 The East: one emperor (Constantinople); a 






cient to medieval 


new prophet. 476-732 a.d. 






history, 376-800 


65 " The rise of the Christian Church " 


2 




A.D. 


66 The growth of the Prankish power: a new 






( 


emperor. 486-800 a.d. 


2 


10 




67 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine 


10 



* The following general survey and outlines of ancient history were copy- 
righted 1901 and 1904 by Walter H. Gushing. 

Outline of ancient history 
I The oriental nations 

1 Introduction : scope and course of ancient history 

*a Races of men ; '''arbitrary classifications by color or by lan- 
guage 
*b Caucasian or white race ; assumed subdivisions 
*c Location and progress of the historic nations : east to west 
d Arbitrary divisions of ancient history: oriental, classical 

and Germanic periods 
*e Definition of the terms, savagery, barbarism, civiHzation 

2 Egypt, 5ooo(?)-525 B. c. 

a The Nile region. *( i ) Physical features and their influence. 
*(2) Remains of ancient civilization 

b The people and their political history. ( i ) Supposed origin. 
*(2) Political development: Pharaohs of Memphis; Pharaohs 
of Thebes; the New Empire — Sais. *(3) Successive inva- 
sions of Egypt 



12 



l8o THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c Civilization. * ( i ) Classes and occupations ; early strikes ; 
political corruption. *(2) Arts, sciences, and literature. 
* ( 3 ) Religion 
*J Special contributions to European progress 

Library and notebook topics 

A Ancient and modern irrigation systems 
B Sources of Egyptian history 

3 The Tigris-Euphrates valley, 5000 or earlier-538 b. c. 

a The land. *(i) The two rivers and their influences. *(2) 
Sources, remains, and relative antiquity of civilization 

b The people. (i) Supposed origin. *(2) Cities: Ur, 
Nineveh, Babylon. *(3) Successive empires and wars: 
Chaldean (3800-1250 b. c.) ; Assyrian (1250-606 b. c.) ; 
Babylonian (606-538 b. c.) 

c Civilization. *(i) Classes and industries. *(2) Arts and 
sciences. *(3) Religion and literature 
^d Special contributions to European culture 

Library and notebook topics 

A The uses of clay in the Tigris-Euphrates culture 
B Nebuchadnezzer and Daniel 
C The capture of Babylon by Cyrus 
D The capture of Samaria 

E A comparison of Babylonians and Assyrians from sources. [See 
West, Ancient History, p. 46-56] 

4 Syria (I) The Phenicians 

a The land and the people, (i) Origin and character. *(2) 

Cities : Tyre, Sidon 
b Enterprises and influence. * ( i ) Commerce : sea routes and 

colonies, Carthage. *(2) Dissemination of arts and alphabet 

5 Syria (II) The Hebrews 

a The people and their homes. *(i) Origin and character. 
*(2) Successive locations: nomadic life, Egypt, Canaan. 
*(3) Political development: patriarchs, judges, kings, the 
two kingdoms, the captivities, the restoration 
*& Religion, literature and world influence 
It is suggested to the teacher that helpful studies of early patriarchal 
life may be made in the story of Abraham, and of tribal government in 
the record of the Judges. 

Library and notebook topics 

A Return of the Hebrews from Babylon 
B The sanitary features of the Mosaic law 



HISTORY l8l 

6 Media and Persia, 850 ( ?)-5T4 t^. c. 

A very general view here ; more in detail under Greece 

a The land and the people. * ( i ) Origin and relations with 
neighbors. *(2) Kings and their conquests: military devel- 
opment. *(3) Political organization under Darius 

b Civilization. (i) Art. (2) Religion and literature. *(3) 
Morals 

*c Persia's contribution to European progress 

7 Summary and review of oriental nations 

*a General features of oriental history: government, religion, 
economic life, science and arts, existing remains 

b Comparisons and contrasts of the Nile and Euphrates cul- 
tures (by topics a, b, etc., and subtopics already given in sec- 
tions 2 and 3) 

c The blending of the two cultures. *(i) Entry into Egypt 
through Hyksos and Hebrews. *(2) Assyria and Egypt: 
conquests. *(3) Syria : mercantile exchange 

d Transmission of culture to the west. *(i) Phenicia. *(2) 
Asia Minor : Lydia and Croesus 

e Consolidation : the Persian Empire 

*Map work 

The oriental nations, with boundaries and terminal dates, and 
lines of communication between Egypt and the Tigris- 
Euphrates valley 

II Ancient Hellas: early development 2000 (?)-750 B. C. 

8 The land and the Aegean basin 

a Physiography. *(i) Diversity of features. *(2) Climate 
and products. *(3) Contrasts with seats of Eastern culture 
already studied. *(4) Geographic advantages, and influence 
of the land on the people 

b Political divisions. *(i) States of the mainland. *(2) The 
Island states, " Stepping-stones " 

*Map zvork 

Two outline maps of the Balkan peninsula, the Aegean and 
Black seas, and Asia Minor; one to show the physical 
features, the other to be kept as a progressive historical 
map throughout the study of Greece 

9 The people : migration and expansion 

Much of this is still debatable ground, and opinions are not settled; 
new light is constantly coming from excavations, specially in Crete. 



l82 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

a " Pelasgians " 
*& Early and later Aegean culture as shown by archeology: 
Tiryns and Mycenae (3d and 2d millennium b. c.) 
c Conquests by Greeks, coming in waves, 1500 b. c. on; fusion, 
expansion 
*d Oriental influence, real and mythical 

Library and notebook topics 

A The ancient palace 

B The life work of Dr Schliemann 

C Early peoples of Greece according to Herodotus and Thucydides 

ID The Epic or " Homeric " age, 1000-700 b. c. (approximately) 
*a The source — Homer : historical and literary value 
*& Social and political organization : family and government 
*c Religion 

*(i The Trojan War and the return of the chiefs 
*^ The Dorian invasion, and the settlement of Asia Minor 

Library and notebook topics 

A Early Greek art 

B Homeric life as pictured in the Iliad and the Odyssey furnishes 
many valuable topics in source work. 

11 "Greek reconstruction of early history" 
a Genealogy : Hellenes and subdivisions 

b Legends of local heroes : Heracles, Minos, Theseus, Jason, 

Oedipus 
c The Hesiodic poems (specially The Theogony) 
d Chronology 

12 *The states and the beginnings of leagues 
a The thriving city centers before 700 b. c. 

*& The city state 
*c Amphictyonies 

"^Map work 

On an outline map indicate by means of colors the Delian 
and Delphian Leagues. Include also principal city centers. 

Ill State and national development in Greece to the foreign 
wars, 750-500 B. C. 

Sections 13 and 14 may well be treated as a classroom lesson given by 
the teacher. 

13 Age of colonial enterprise 
a Causes of colonization 



HISTORY 



183 



h Character and organization of a colony ; connection with 

mother city 
c Chief centers 

Map work 

The Mediterranean basin, with principal colonies, distinguish- 
ing Ionian, Aeolian, Dorian, and Achaean 

14 Order of political evolution 

a Monarchy to aristocracy (oligarchy) 
h Tyrannies 

c Democracies, or reversion to oligarchies 
d Growth of popular discontent 

Library and notebook topics 

The two periods of colonial expansion 

15 Growth of Sparta: a military aristocracy 
*a Place and people 

'^b Institutions and government ; myth of Lycurgus 
*c vSystem and aim of education ; mode of life 
*rf Messenian wars ; the Peloponnesian League 

Library and notebook topics 

A Lycurgus 

B Spartan women 

Map work 

Peloponnesus, showing Spartan sphere of influence, 500 b. c. 

16 Growth of Athens. Progress toward democracy 
*a Place and people ; mythic monarchy 

^b Eupatrid rule : Cylon and Draco 

*c Solon " the Wise " 

^d Tyranny : Pisistratus and the Pisistratidae 

^e Cleisthenes's changes 

17 Intellectual progress of Hellas to 500 b. c. 
a Art 

b Poetry : the lyric age 

c Philosophy 

d Deepening religious sense 

18 Bonds of union 

*a Common language and ancestry 
*& Religion : temples, oracles, festivals 
*c Amphictyonies and political leagues 
*rf Greek games 



184 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Library and notebook topics 
A Greek oracles 
B Greek games 

IV Foreign wars of the Greeks: independence. 560-479 B. C. 

19 Lydian and Persian conquests in Asia Minor 
Review section yd (2), ye; and section 6 

*a Croesus 

*& Cyrus and Cambyses 

20 Scythian expedition and Ionic revolt 

*a Darius ; the northern frontier ; the Hellenic tyrants 
*& Sardis, Miletus; results 

. "^Map work 

The chief Ionian cities 

21 Persian invasion, 492-479 b. c. 

There is still danger of spending too much time on wars. 

*a Causes ; resources of Greeks and Persians ; expeditions sent 

by Darius (Marathon, 490 b. c.) 
*b The 10 years respite, 490-480 b. c. : Themistocles and Aris- 

tides 

*c The third expedition: Xerxes (Thermopylae and Salamis, 
480 B. c. ; Plataea and Mycale, 479 b. c.) ; results 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Alcmaeonidae 

B The Monuments of victory erected by the Greeks 

C The battle of Salamis from Greek authors 

D Cambyses and Darius 

E Xerxes's preparations 

F " The Wars of Liberation " 

G Aristides and Themistocles 

22 " The Punic invasion," 485-480 b. c. : the Carthaginians in 

Sicily 
*a " Western Greece " : chief centers and previous history 
*& Carthage : understanding with Persia 
*c Gelon : Himera and results 

V The preeminence of Athens, 479-431 B.C. 

23 Delian League and the Athenian empire, 477-461 b. c. 
*a Themistocles and the fortification of Athens 

*& Aristides and the leadership of the Asiatic Greeks 

*c Cimon and naval victories : the league becomes an empire 

*d Political parties at Athens; attitude toward Sparta 



HISTORY 185 

Library and notebook topics 

A The government of Athens during the period of Athenian ascend- 
ancy 
B Pausanias 
C Athens's treatment of subject states 

'^Map work 

The Athenian empire at its greatest extent, about 456 b. c. 

24 The Periclean age and the Athenian democracy, 461-431 b. c. 
*a Foreign poHcy : Egypt, Persia, Cyprus 

"^'■b Government : magistrate and assembHes 

*c Education : the aim and the means 

*d Social life 

*<? Pericles the man : his character and influence 

25 Intellectual life ; the Athenian genius 

*a Art : beautification of the city ; sculpture 
*& Literature : drama and history 
c Philosophy 

*Map work 

Athens, with her fortifications, environs and principal build- 
ings 

VI Wars between the Greek states: a century of strife, 461-362 
B.C. ; the Macedonian invasion 

26 Athenian attempt at land empire, 461-445 b. c. 
*a Pericles's policy and alliances 

*b Wars with Peloponnesians and Boeotians 
*c Thirty Years Truce 

'^'Map work 

Athenian empire and the states allied with Athens and with 
Sparta, 431 b. c. 

27 Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b. c. 
*a Causes : resources of each side 

b Periods. *(i) Indecisive, 431-421 b. c. : Cleon and Brasidas. 
*(2) Sicilian expedition (with interval preceding), 421-413 
B. c. : Nicias and Alcibiades. *(3) Persian activity, 413-404 
B. c. : Alcibiades and Lysander 
*c Results ; political condition of Flellas 

Library and notebook topics 

A Extracts from funeral oration delivered by Pericles 
B Thucydides's account of the Sicilian expedition 



l86 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

28 The new learning 
*a Socrates 

b The Drama (Euripides and Aristophanes) 

Library and notebook topics 

A Alcibiades as an illustration of his times 

B Sophists and rhetoricians 

C Thucydides and Herodotus compared 

29 The hegemony of Sparta, 404-371 b. c. 
*a PoHcy of Sparta : Lysander 

*& Wars: Agesilaus. (i) Persian: Anabasis; Antalcidas. (2) 
Domestic: Peloponnesus, Chalcidice, new Athenian League, 
Leuctra 

*c Estimate of Spartan power, and reasons for her failure to 
secure Hellenic unity 

Library and notebook topics 

A Lysander 
B Agesilaus 
C Comparison of Sparta and Athens 

30 The attempted hegemony of Thebes, 371-362 b. c. 
*o Leuctra 

*b Policy of Epaminondas : Peloponnesus, Persia, Athens 
*c Mantinea and the end of Theban leadership 

31 The western Greeks, 410-300 b. c. (approximately) 

*a Outline of the Sicilian history in review [see section 22] 
b Dionysius i 
c Timoleon, the Liberator 

32 Literature and art, 400-350 b. c. 

a "From poetry to prose." (i) History: (compare Xenophon 
with Herodotus and Thucydides). (2) Oratory: Lysias and 
Isocrates. (3) Philosophy: Plato 

h Art 

Section 32 may be treated after ^2i, and may then include Demosthenes 
and Aristotle, as well as Lysippus. 

33 The rise of Macedon, 359-336 b. c. 
*a Hellenes and Macedonians 

*b Philip : training, character, aggressions 
c " The end of Greek freedom," 338-336 b. c. *(i) Chaeronea. 
338 B. c. *(2) Relations estabhshed by Congress of Corinth 
(with comparison of Congress of Corinth, 481 b. c). *(3) 
History of the idea of Hellenic conquest of Persia, Cimon 
to Philip 



HISTORY 187 

Library and notebook topics 

A The development of military formation among the Greeks 

B Pelopidas 

C Epaminondas 

D Timoleon 

E The Athens of Demosthenes 

F Extracts from the orations of Demosthenes 

VII The empire of Alexander ; " The Mingling of the East and 
West." 336-146 B.C. 
34 The career of Alexander, 336-323 b. c. 
*a Early life 

*Z? The conquest of Asia Minor and Egypt 
*c The conquest of Persia and the farther East 
*d The character of Alexander; estimate of his work 

Library and notebook topics 

A The military system of Alexander 

B The Persian empire 

C Alexander's siege of Tyre 

D Alexander's conquest of Egypt 

E The murder of Clitus 

F The mutiny of Alexander's army 

G Alexander's plans 

H The character of Alexander as shown in anecdotes 

"^Map work 

On an outline map trace the route of Alexander's march, 
marking his battles and the most important cities founded 
by him. 
35 The Hellenistic period, 323-146 b. c. 
*a The disintegration of Alexander's empire: the wars of the 
Diadochi, 323-280 b. c. 
b The Hellenistic kingdoms. *(i) Egypt and the Ptolemies. 
*(2) Syria and the Seleucidae 

Library and notebook topics 

A Invasion of the Gauls 
B Rhodes and Pergamon 

36 Greece to Roman intervention ; attempts at federal govern- 
ment, 280-200 B. c. 
*a Achean League (Aratus) 

*& Its conflict with Sparta (Cleomenes) leads first to Macedo- 
nian, then to Roman, intervention 



I6b THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

VIII Early Rome; and the Roman Republic to its supremacy 
in Italy. 753 (?)-264 B.C. 

37 The land and the people 

*a The land: the peninsula" of Italy and its relations to the 
Mediterranean basin ; climate and products of Italy 

*& The people: remnants of early peoples; the Italian stocks; 
the invading nations (Etruscans, Gauls, Greeks, and Pheni- 
cians) 

*Map work 

On outline maps mark: (i) mountain systems; (2) rivers;. 
(3) the political divisions 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Etruscans 

B The Greek colonies in Italy 

C The Gauls 

38 Early Rome : sources of our knowledge 
*a The legends and their value 

*& Buildings and other remains. *(i) The walls. *(2) The 
cloaca 

39 Regal Rome : organization 

*a The government: king, senate, assemblies 
*& The people : patricians, plebeians 
*c Religion 

Library and notebook topic 
The Roman family 

40 The early Republic : the struggle between the classes ; triumph 

of the plebeians. 509 ( ?)-286 b. c. 

*a The establishment of the Republic 

*& The economic and social condition of the plebeians, leading 
to the establishment of the tribunate 

*c The laws of the Twelve Tables 

*d The admission of the plebeians to the magistracies (Licinian 
laws) 

*^ The admission of the plebeians to the assemblies (Hortensian 

law) 
/ An outline of the Roman constitution in 286 b. c. : magis- 
trates, senate, assemblies, functions of each (use textbook 
and dictionaries of antiquities) 



HISTORY ' 189 

41 The early Republic: the establishment of Rome's supremacy 

in Latium. 509 ( ?)-338 b. c. 
*a Wars with neighboring nations, Volscians, Aequians, and 

Etruscans 
*b The invasion of the Gauls and the sack of Rome 
*c Rome and the Latins 

42 The conquest and organization of Italy, 338-264 b. c. 
*fl The Samnite wars, 343-264 b. c. 

*b The war with the Greeks (Pyrrhus), 280-272 b. c. 
*c The organization of Italy : colonies ; roads 
d The military system 

Map work 

Map of the ancient city of Rome 

Library and notebook topics 

A The colonial system 

B Roman roads and road making 

C Livy's account of the succession of the plebeians 

D Livy's account of the Decemvirate 

E Battle of Caudine pass 

F Roman army 

G The Samnite wars 

IX Rome becomes supreme in the Mediterranean basin, 264-133 
B. C. 

43 The struggle with Carthage for Sicily : the First Punic War, 
264-241 B. c. 

*a Carthage 
*& The war 
*c Sicily, the first Roman province 

Library and notebook topics 

A The victory of Duilius 

B The defeat at Drepana 

C The fleet built by private subscription 

D The treaty at the end of the First Punic War 

44 "The extension of Italy to its natural boundaries"; wars in 

Africa and Spain. 241-218 b. c. 
a Wars of Rome in the North (Gallic and lUyrian), 229-222 

B. c. 
b Sardinia and Corsica 
c Wars of the Carthaginians in Africa and Spain (Hamilcar) 



igO THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Library and notebook topics 
A The acquisition of Sardinia 
B The siege of Saguntum 

45 The struggle between Rome and Carthage for the supremacy 

in the West: the Second and Third Punic Wars. 218-133 
B. c. 

*a Hannibal's march into Italy 
b The war in Italy. *(i) Successes of Hannibal: three great 

battles won; three great cities captured. *(2) Final success 

of the Romans ; loyalty of the Latins 
c The war in Africa and in Spain. *(i) The Scipios in Spain, 

218-212 B. c. *(2) The battle of Zama, 202 b. c. *(3) The 

treaty 
d The establishment of the supremacy of Rome in the western 

Mediterranean, 201-133 ^- C- *(i) The Third Punic War, 

149-146 b. c. '^(2) Subjugation of Spain, 133 b. c. 

Library and notebook topics 

A Hannibal, the man and the general 

B Hannibal's passage of the Alps 

C The battle of Trasimenus 

D The battle of Cannae 

E The treaty at the end of Second Punic War 

F The siege of Syracuse 

*Map work 

Trace the route of Hannibal's invasion 

46 Rome becomes supreme in the eastern Mediterranean, 216- 

133 B. c. 
a The acquisition of Greece. *(i) The condition of Greece. 

*(2) The Macedonian Wars. *(3) Macedonia a Roman 

province ; destruction of Corinth, 146 b. c. 
b The acquisition of Asia, (i) War with Antiochus, 192-189 

B. c. ; settlement of the East. (2) The kingdom of Pergamon, 

133 B. c. 

X The ancient world under Roman rule during the change from 
the republic to the monarchy, 133-31 B.C. 

47 Organization of Rome's foreign conquests 

*a The provinces to 133 b. c. enumera'ted: Sicily, Sardinia and 
Corsica, Hither Spain, Farther Spain, I-llyricum, Macedonia 
and Achaia, Africa, Asia 

*b The client states enumerated: Numidia, Libya, Egypt 

*c The provincial system 



HISTORY 



191 



*Map zvork 

Mark the boundaries of the Roman power in 133 b. c. 

Library and notebook topics 

A provincial governor of the worst type as described bj' Cicero 

48 The effects of conquests and the provincial system on society, 

politics, and manners 
*a Agrarian conditions 

*& The classes : optimates, populares, equites 
*c The government : senate, magistrates, assemblies 
*d The introduction of Hellenism; art; poetry 

Library and notebook topics 

A Cato the Elder 

B Scipio Africanus 

C Scipio Aemilianus 

D The drama 

E Introduction of foreign luxuries 

F Supremacy of the senate 

49 Revolutionary attempts at reform under the Gracchi, 133- 

121 B. c. 
*a Tiberius Gracchus: attempts at agrarian reform, 133 b. c. 
*^ Gains Gracchus : attempts at a revolution in the Constitution, 

123 B. c. 

Library and notebook topics 

A The position of slaves 

B Lives of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus 

50 "The rule of the Restoration," 121-88 b. c. 
*a The war with Jugurtha, 111-105 b. c. 

*& The invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones (Marius), 113-101 
B. c. 
c Internal affairs, (i) The rule of the nobles. (2) Attempts 
at reform by Saturninus and Glaucia and by Drusus 
*d The Social War, 90-88 b. c. 

Library and notebook topics 

A Life of Marius 

B War with Jugurtha 

51 The struggle between Marius and Sulla; reestablishment of 

senatorial rule. 88-79 ^- ^■ 
*a The revolution of Marius, 88 b. c. 
*& The rule of the Marian party (Cinna), 87-84 b. c. 



192 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

*c The struggle between the parties of Marius and Sulla: the 

first civil war, 84-82 b. c. 
^d The rule of Sulla, and the Sullan Constitution, 82-79 b. c. 

Library and notebook topic 
Sulla, the man 

52 Pompey and Caesar, 79-48 b. c. 

a Afifairs in the East. *(i) The condition of the East; (Mith- 
ridates). (2) The campaigns of Sulla, 96-84 b. c. *(3) The 
campaigns of Pompey and his reorganization of the East, 
66-63 ^- c. 

h Affairs at Rome. *(i) The conspiracy of Catiline, 66-63 
B. c. *(2) The first Triumvirate, 60 b. c. 

c Caesar in Gaul, 58^51 b. c. *(i) The condition of Gaul. 
*(2) Caesar's campaigns. *(3) Organizations of conquests 
*J Civil war, 49-48 b. c. 

*Map work 

Show the extent of Roman power in 133 b. c. with the addi- 
tions made up to 48 b. c. 

Library and notebook topics 

A Cicero as a public man 

B Pompey as a general and a statesman 

C Caesar's army 

D The conspiracy of Catiline 

E Caesar in Gaul 

53 The rule of Caesar, 48-44 b. c. 

*a The condition of the Roman world 
*& The reforms of Caesar 
c The estimate of Caesar 

54 The struggle for the succession, 44-31 b. c. 

*a Civil war: the overthrow of the liberators (Philippi, 42 b. c.) 
*& The rivalry of Octavius and Antony: the West against the 
East (Actium, 31 b. c.) 

55 Roman culture in the " Ciceronian age " 

a Literature. *(i) Cicero. *(2) Sallust. *(3) Caesar 
*5 Education 

Library and notebook topics 

A Cicero as seen in his letters 
B Character of Antony 



HISTORY 193 

XI The ancient world under the Roman Empire, 31 B.C.-375 
A.D. 

56 Establishment of the empire, 31 b. C.-14 a. d. 

*a The constitution : survivals of the republican system ; the 

princcps; changes in the government of the provinces and 

the city of Rome 
b The frontiers. *(i) The East. *(2) Alpine region. *(3) 

The Northwest (Teutoberg forest, 9 a. d.) 
c Literature of the Augustan age. *(i) Virgil. (2) Horace. 

*(3) Livy 

Library and notebook topics 

A Provinces under Augustus 
B Augustus as a builder 
C Character of Augustus 
D The worship of the emperor 

Map work 

Mark the provinces ; distinguishing between the imperial and 
the senatorial 

57 The Julian and Flavian Caesars, 14-96 a. d. 

a The constitution : growth of monarchial ideas 

b The empire. *(i) The East. *(2) The German frontier. 

*(3) Britain 
c The condition of the empire and society. *(i) Life in the 
towns: (a) external appearance of a Roman city (Rome of 
Pompeii as a type); {b) government; *(c) amusements; 
*(rf) Pompeii; (e) the Graffiti. (2) Life in the provinces, 
*(3) Travel and correspondence. *(4) Commerce 

Library and notebook topics 

A The destruction of Jerusalem 

B The classes in the towns 

C The finances of the towns 

D The education of the Roman in imperial times 

E Roman amusements 

F The eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a. d. 

G Peculiar customs of the Romans 

H The burning of Rome in Nero's reign 

■ / Country houses 

58 The empire under the " Good Emperors," 96-180 a. d. 
a The government and administration 

b Extension and consolidation. *(i) Trajan (Dacia and Me- 
sopotamia), 98-117 a. d. *(2) Hadrian (travels and forti- 



194 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

fications), 117-38 A. d. *(3) Marcus Aurelius (Marcomanic 
War), 161-80 A. D. 
*c The condition of the empire in the second century 
d " The Silver Age of Literature " 

Library and notebook topics 

A Correspondence of Trajan and Pliny 

B Marcus Aurelius 

C Life of Pliny the Younger 

D Forum of Trajan 

E Hadrian's villa at Tivoli 

*Map work 

Mark the additions of Trajan. Indicate the fortifications 

of Hadrian 

*59 The Roman Empire under the Soldier Emperors ; a century of 

revolution. 180-284 A. d. 

a Typical emperors. (i) Septimus Severus, 193-21 1 a. d. 

(2) Caracalla (extension of the Roman franchise), 211-17 

a. D. (3.) Elagabalus, 218-22 a. d. (4) Aurelian, 270-72 

A. D. 

Library and notebook topics 
A The wall of Aurelian 
B The arch of Septimus Severus 
C Society in the 4th century a.d. 

60 The Roman Empire under the Absolute Emperors, 284-375 

A. D. 

*a Absolutism: Diocletian, reorganization of the empire 
*& Constantine, transfer of the capital to Constantinople 
*c The provincial organization 
*(i Bureaucracy of officials 

61 Rise and triumph of Christianity 

*a Attitude of Roman government toward Christianity 
*& The persecutions 

*c The triumph and establishment of the Church 
*(/ The organization of the Church 

Library and notebook topics 

A Christianity in the Roman Empire 
B The contribution of Christianity 
C The catacombs 

XII Transition period, 376-800 A.D. 

62 Invasions, and the fall of the Western Empire, 376-476 A. d. 
*a The Germans 



HISTORY 195 

*6 The invasion of the West Goths (Alaric), 376-410 a. d. ; 
sieges of Rome by Alaric 
' *c The invasion of the Vandals (Geiseric), 378-455 a. d. ; the 
sack of Rome 
*rf The invasion of the Huns (Attila), 378-453 a. d. ; battle of 
Chalons, 451 a. d. 
e The last Roman emperor in the West, 476 a. d. 
*/ The causes of the decline of Rome 
*^ The influence of Rome 

63 The West: continued invasions, and formation of Germanic 

states, 476-774 A. D. 
*a Condition of Europe in 476 a. d. 
*b Italy; Ostrogoths, 493-552 a. d. (Theodoric) ; Lombards, 

568-774 A. D. 
*c Britain : the Anglo-Saxons 
*d Gaul : the Franks 

*e Spain: " decaying kingdom of the Visigoths " fto 711 a. d.) 
*/ Results of invasions : fusion of races, language, law 

Library and notebook topic 
Theodoric 

^Map work 
Map showing routes of migrations and final places of settle- 
ment 

64 The East: one emperor (Constantinople) ; *a new prophet, 

476-732 A. D. 
*a Justinian : conquests, and codification of the law 
^b The rise of Mohammedanism : Mohammed ; his religious 

system; Saracen conquests 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Iconoclastic controversy 

B Belisarius 

C The siege of Constantinople by the Saracens 

D The Saracen conquest of Spain 

E The important teachings of the Koran 

65 " The rise of the Christian Church " 

*a Early organization of the Church ; growth of the Papal 

power to 600 A. D. 
^b Differences and divisions 
*c Monasticism 

13 



196 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Library and notebook topics 

A Pope Gregory the Great 

B The life of St Columban and the work of the Irish monks 

C Influence of the early Church 

D The Benedictine Rule 

66 The growth of the Frankish power; a new emperor. 486- 
800 A. D. 
*a Clevis and the Merovingians 

*& The CaroHngians as "mayors"; battle of Tours, 732 a. d. 
*c The Carolingians as kings ; Lombardy 
*d Charlemagne : the king crowned emperor, 800 a. d. 

"^Map work 

Empire of Charlemagne 

Library and notebook topics 

A Boniface and his work 

B The Salic law 

C The conversion of Clovis as told by Gregory of Tours 

*6y Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine 

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 

English history is recommended as a study for the third year of 
the high school course, and may profitably be pursued throughout 
an entire year. English history stands next to American in close 
interest to us, because more American institutions m.ay be traced 
to England than to any other country. For this reason a knowl- 
edge of English history is necessary to a thorough understanding of 
our own. The influence which the rivalry of England with France 
and Spain had on the exploration and occupation of America, the 
impulse given to imm.igration by the shifting political conditions in 
England from 1600 to 1700, the share which the Petition of Right 
and the Bill of Rights had in shaping the first 10 amendments to 
our Constitution ; these are instances where the development of our 
own institutions can not be understood well without knowing Eng- 
lish history well also. 

It is recommended that the history be studied first as a narrative 
in chronologic order of succession ; that special emphasis be given 
to the starred topics ; that, as the study of each period is concluded, 
a careful reexamination of the period be made topically as outlined 
in this syllabus, and that last, topics of primary importance, like 
Parliament, religion, naval power, commerce, manufactures and 



HISTORY 197 

popular customs be reviewed separately to note the changes and 
the development of the England of today from the England of the 
past. 

The maps suggested in the syllabus should each be carefully 
drawn by the student in connection with his chronologic study or 
his first topical review, using the maps to illustrate and fix the facts 
then under discussion. Other maps should be studied to recall the 
extent and the power of England's rivals among the nations. The 
frequent use of pictures as illustrative material is urged. The 
teacher should also see that no student confines himself to any one 
textbook, for the work is better understood and better remembered 
by obtaining the views of dilferent authors. 

In beginning the study of English history, the " unknown " may 
be profitably related to the " known " by the use of an introductory 
topic. For instance, several days may be spent in reading and dis- 
cussing a book of travel or a guidebook, or by taking an imaginary 
journey with the aid of lantern and slides. Another good way of 
introducing the study would be the development in class of such 
a topic as the following: 

Some things America has inherited from Britain 

The wealth of material is barely indicated in the following out- 
line : 

a Language and hterature : Shakspere ; the English Bible 

b Government ; the town and town meeting ; the county govern- 
ment; the city charter; parks; representative government gen- 
erally 

c Law : the English Common Law ; the guaranty of personal 
rights such as are found in the first 10 amendments to the 
Constitution of the United States ■ 

d Naval, commercial and colonial enterprise 

e Inventions : steam engine and railway ; textile machinery ; gas 
for lighting 

/ Breeds of domesticated animals, specially cows, sheep and 
swine 

Lists of required readings to be varied from year to year will be 
found on pages 290-300. One or more questions based on these 
required readings will be included in each examination. Questions 
calling for minute details will not be asked. 



198 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



15 








" d 


General 


survey of the field 


"d 




( 


I The land 


2 


4 


I Britain to 440 a.d. 


2 Early Britain 
^ 3 Roman Britain 

4 Saxons and Angles 1 

5 The Saxon supremacy ; 








2 


5 


II Saxon England 


6 The struggle against invasions 






449-1066 


7 Establishment of Christianity 

8 Government and life in Saxon Eng- 

land 

9 Establishment of Norman rule 




5 


III Norman England ^ 


10 The Church and the Crusades 


2 




I 066- I 154 


1 1 Life of the feudal period 


2 






' 12 England and France 


2 






13 Ireland, Wales and Scotland 


2 


17 


IV England under the 


14 Constitutional development 


6 




Plantagenets 


1 5 The Wars of the Roses 


I 




1 154-1485 


16 The Church 


2 






17 Commerce and manufactures 


2 






1 18 Life in Plantagenet England 


2 






19 Establishment of centralized mon- 








archy 


2 






20 Extension of national power abroad 


2 


II 


V Tudor England, 


2 1 The Church of England 


3 




I 485-1 603 


22 The development of trade and col- 








onies 


2 






23 Life in Tudor England 


2 






24 The division between kings and 








Parliament 


3 






25 Civil war and commonwealth 


3 


15 


VI The Puritan revolution 


26 Restoration and revolution 


2 




and the royalist re- 


27 England and the continent 


I 




action, 1603-88 


28 Ireland 


I 






29 Commerce and colonies 


2 






30 Religious history 


2 






31 Life and literature 


I 






' 32 Establishment and development of 








constitutional monarchy 


2 






33 Relations with Scotland and Ireland; 








the Jacobites 


I 






34 Conflicts with France on three con- 








tinents 


3 






35 The colonies 


3 


15 


VII Constitutional mon- 


36 Manufactures and commerce; the 






archy, I 688-1 820 


industrial revolution 
37 The Wesleyan movement and other 


3 






reforms 


2 






38 National Ufe, learning and literature 


I 






' 39 Parliamentary reform 


2 






40 Government in England at the pres- 








ent time 


2 






41 Taxation and trade 


2 






42 Industrial progress 


2 




• 


43 Colonies 


2 


16 


VIII The British Empire, 


44 Foreign affairs 


2 




1820- 


45 Ireland 


I 






46 Literature and science 


I 






47 Social conditions 


2 


12 




48 General siunmary and review 


12 



HISTORY 199 

Outline 

I Britain to 449 A.D. 

1 Britain, the land 
*a Situation 

*b Physical features 
*c Resources 

Map shozving the chief physical features and natural resources 
of Great Britain 

2 Early Britain 

*a The earliest inhabitants and the traces left by them 
b Trade and travel between Britain and the continent 
c Celtic tribes : characteristics and customs of the Britons ; the 
Druids and their influence 

3 Roman Britain 

*a The Roman conquest : Caesar's invasions and results ; *the 

real conquest 
. b Roman rule: Suetonius and the destruction of the Druids; 

Agricola ; extent of Roman rule ; effects of Roman«rule 
*c Withdrawal of the Romans : causes ; remains of Roman 

occupation 

*Map showing Roman roads, tozvns and tualls 

II Saxon England, 449-1066 

4 Saxons and Angles 

■ *a The people : their European home ; customs, institutions 
b The conquest: causes of the invasion; manner of coming 
*c Destruction of Roman and Celtic institutions ; sections of 
Britain occupied 

5 The Saxon supremacy 

*Development of the Saxon kingdom : fusion among the tribes ; 
Egbert ; supremacy of Wessex ; character of the union estab- 
lished by Egbert 
Map shozving political and racial division of Britain about 600 
A. D. 

6 The struggle against invasions 

*a The Northmen: their early home, race, manner of life, their 
enterprise and daring in colonizing; the invasion of England 

*b Great Saxon leaders ; Alfred ; treaty of Wedmore ; the 
Danelaw ; Dunstan 

*c The Danish kings : renewed attacks and successes of the 
Danes ; dominions and government of Sweyn and Canute 
d Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwin 



200 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

*^ Harold: his difficulties; claim of William of Normandy; the 

battle of Senlac 
Map of England in Alfred's day 

7 Establishment of Christianity 

*The early English church : Augustine ; the Roman and Irish 
missionaries ; council of Whitby ; monasteries and abbeys ; 
life of the monks, their routine industries, schools, hospitality 

8 Government and life in Saxon England 

*a Government: moots; courts; trial by ordeal; the Witan and 
its power; selection and power of the king 

*b Life among the Saxons of the loth century : the village and 
its folkland; homes and furnishings; food; clothing; agri- 
culture ; trade ; manufactures 

Library and notebook topics 

A Origin and government of the shires 

B The Saxon hundred and township 

C The settlement of the Normans in France 

D The vikings, their education and manner of life as described in 

DuChaillu's Viking Age 
E Canute's letter to his people 
F A ground plan of a monastery 
G The northern monasteries 

III Norman England, 1066-1154 

9 Establishment of Norman rule 

*a Completion of the conquest: castle building; grants of land; 
crushing of Northumbria ; defeat of Hereward ; victories over 
Malcolm; the Domesday book and the Salisbury oath 

*& Characteristics of William the Conqueror 
c Tyranny of William Rufus 

*c? Government of Henry i : the Saxon marriage ; Charter of 
Liberties; king's courts; Normandy an English duchy 

10 The Church and the Crusades 

*a Double control by Church and state: organization of the 
Church; Church courts and what they did; relations of Wil- 
liam I and Gregory 7; strife of investitures; the Church and 
learning; churchmen as statesmen 

*& The Crusades : causes ; interest of the Church in the Cru- 
sades ; Robert of Normandy and the first crusade 

11 Life of the feudal period 

*a Feudal relations : duties of lord, vassal and serf 
*& The feudal estate: the castle; the manor; division of lands 
c Reasons for the development of feudalism 



HISTORY 20 1 

*af Differences between English and continental feudalism 
*e Warfare: weapons; manner of fighting; treatment of prison- 
ers ; knighthood and chivalry 
*/ Antagonism of Norman and Saxon : reasons and effects 
*(/ Education ; manufactures ; trade ; travel ; amusements 
*/i Language and literature : language of court, Church and 
field; language of different sections; Geoffry of Monmouth 
and the legends of King Arthur; the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Domesday book 

B Ground plan of a feudal castle 

C Battle of Senlac 

D Hereward the Wake 

E Comparison of Norman and Saxon characteristics 

F Lan franc 

IV England under the Plantagenets, 1 154-1485 

12 England and France 

*a Henry 2 and his dominions 
Map of the territory ruled by Henry 2 
*6 Weakness of England under John and Henry 3 : loss of 

Normandy ; gradual loss of other possessions 
Map shozving England's possessions in France at the outbreak 
of the Hundred Years War 
*c Beginning of the Hundred Years War: claim of Edward 3 
to the French throne ; Crecy ; the Black Prince ; Poitiers 
Map locating principal battle, seiges and strongholds of the 

Hundred Years War 
*rf Renewal of war with France: Henry 5 revives claim to the 
French crown; Agincourt; progress of the war; Bedford; 
work of Joan of Arc; close of the war 
Map shozving conditions in France zvhen Joan of Arc began 
her zvork 

13 Ireland, Wales and Scotland 

*a Ireland : early history ; Henry 2 in Ireland ; the English 
Pale ; life on the island 

*b Wales: early relations with England; the Welsh marches; 
conquest by Edward i ; revolts and reconcjuest 

*c Scotland : border warfare ; overlordships ; Dunbar and the 
fall of Baliol ; rising of Wallace ; union of England and 
Scotland ; Bruce ; Bannockburn ; recognition of Scottish in- 
dependence in 1328 



202 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

14 Constitutional development 

*a Organized government: political condition of England at 
the accession of Henry 2 ; character of Henry 2 ; royal power 
increased by conquest of the barons; scutage; judicial re- 
forms; the council; Henry 2 and the Church; sale of char- 
ters by Richard i ; plans of Henry 2 carried forward by 
Richard's justiciars 

*& Magna Charta : King John and his quarrel with the barons ; 
part taken by Stephen Langton; granting the charter; prin- 
cipal provisions and importance of the charter in English 
history 

*c The first Parliament : characteristics of Henry 3 ; grievances 
of the people; Provisions of Oxford; divisions among the 
barons and results; rule of Simon de Montfort; Parliament 
of 1265 ; Evesham and its results 

*c? The Model Parliament and taxation: Edward i, character, 
aims and policy; composition and importance of the Model 
Parliament; confirmation of the charters 
e Parliament deposes Edward 2 

*/ House of Lords and House of Commons: character of Ed- 
ward 3 ; division of Parliament into two houses ; Parliament 
and taxation 

*^ Parliament and Richard 2 : rule and deposition of Richard 2 ; 
Parliament elects Henry 4; strength of Parliament under 
Henry 4 
h Decline of parliamentary power: the regency and weak rule 
of Henry 6; divisions among the nobles; rivalry of Lan- 
caster and York 

15 Wars of the Roses 

*a Causes for civil strife: condition of the country; the barons; 
character of Henry 6; rivalry of Lancaster and York 
h Course of the war: division of the country; battles of St 
Albans, Wakefield and Towton ; triumph and rule of Ed- 
ward 4; quarrel between Edward 4 and Warwick; Tewks- 
bury and Barnet; death of Edward 4 and usurpation of 
Richard 3 ; Bosworth Field and accession of the Tudors 

*c Results of the wars 

Map shoiving divisions of the country and battles of the Wars 
of the Roses 

16 The Church 

*a Church and state : strife between Henry 2 and Thomas a 
Becket; quarrel between John and the pope; establishment 



HISTORY 203 

of papal power; increase of the wealth of the Church; the 
statutes of Mortmain, Proviso rs and Premunire, why they 
were passed and what they did 

*b The friars and their work 

*c Lollards: causes of the Lollard movement; Wyclif ; prosecu- 
tion of the Lollards 

17 Commerce and manufactures 

*a Commerce : merchant gilds, merchants of the staple ; fairs ; 

the Hanseatic League ; merchant adventurers 
*b Manufactures : early manufactures ; coming of the Flemish 

weavers ; development of woolen manufactures ; craft gilds 

18 Life in Plantagenet England 

*a General progress : union of Saxon and Norman ; growth of 
towns ; decrease of villenage ; increasing wealth and im- 
portance of the artisan class 

*b The Peasants' Rising: the Black Death and its effect on in- 
dustry ; Statute of Laborers ; growth of democratic senti- 
ment; Wat .Tyler's Rebellion and its overthrow; permanent 
results 
c Warfare: weapons and armor; decline of chivalry; use of 
gunpowder 

*d Intellectual progress : development of the English language ; 
Chaucer; Wyclif; Langland ; cathedral building; rise of the 
universities ; introduction of printing 

*e Travel and amusements; home life of noble and peasant 

Library and notebook topics 

A The principles of Magna Charta that have become embodied in 

English and American government 
B The Interdict and the Excommunication 
C A summary of the relations between the Papacy and English 

sovereigns covering the reigns of William i, Henry 2, John 

and Edward i 
D Life in England as portrayed by Chaucer 
E Feudal England as seen in Ivanhoc 
F The restrictions and dangers of commerce in the Plantagenet 

period 
G Trade routes in the Middle Ages 
H A medieval fair 

/ The introduction of the printing press into England 
/ The early use of gunpowder in war 
K The character of Richard 3 as seen in Shakspere's Richard j 



204 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

V Tudor England, 1485-1603 

19 The establishment of centralized monarchy 

*a Henry 7: condition of the country, Church, nobles and 
middle classes after the Wars of the Roses; law against 
maintenance and livery; the Court of the Star Chamber; 
benevolences ; artillery ; avoidance of foreign wars 

*& Henry 8 : the personal government of Henry 8 as seen in his 
treatment of his wives, his ministers and Parliament; di- 
vorce of Katherine; Act of Supremacy; confiscation of the 
monasteries ; creation of a " new nobility " 
c The nation's acceptance of despotism: growing power of the 
middle classes; control of Parliament by the Crown; gen- 
eral characteristics and policy of the Tudors 

20 Extension of national power abroad 

*a The Tudor peace policy: marriage alliances and diplomacy 
of Henry 7; the foreign policy of Wolsey; the caution of 
Elizabeth 
*& The war with Spain: causes of the war; the Armada and its 
effect on national spirit; defeat of the Armada; Elizabethan 
seamen 
c England's position at the close of the Tudor period 
Map shozving Europe and Spanish Empire, 1550 

21 The Church of England (rise of Puritanism) 

a Condition of the church at the opening of the period : wealth ; 
judicial courts; political power and influence 

*& Rise of Protestantism : doctrines of Wyclif ; Luther's revolt ; 
attitude of Henry 8 toward Luther's teachings 
c The break with Rome: *divorce of Katherine; *dissolution 
of the monasteries; ^translation of the Bible; the Ten Arti- 
cles ; *Act of Supremacy ; the Pilgrimage of Grace ; the Six 
Articles ; ^treatment accorded to heretics ; the church as left 
by Henry 8 

*d The Protestant revolution under Edward 6 and his ministers ; 
measures of the government; attitude of the nation 

^e Catholic reaction : *Mary's aims ; *the attitude of Parliament 
and the nation toward Mary ; the Spanish Marriage ; reunion 
with Rome ; persecutions ; *results of Mary's policy 

*/ The moderation of Elizabeth : repeal of heresy laws ; the 
Thirty-nine Articles ; growth of Puritan ideas ; effects of the 
Armada and the wars in the Netherlands on religious senti- 
ment 



HISTORY 205 

g The Church in Ireland and Scotland 

22 The development of trade and colonies 

*a Trade : decay of gilds and trade organizations ; rise of the 
middle class; debasement and restoration of coinage; com- 
ing of artisans from the continent ; gain of Flemish trade ; 
laws protecting manufactures and regulating trade; estab- 
lishment of navy 

*^ Colonial enterprise: explorations of the Cabots, Drake and 
Raleigh; colonizing attemps of Gilbert and Raleigh; estab- 
lishment of trading companies 

23 Life in Tudor England 

*a Social and economic changes: modes of living; the house, 
city and country ; decay of old towns ; rise of new centers of 
population; wheat fields versus sheep pastures; increase of 
pauperism and its causes ; laws for relief of the poor ; intro- 
duction of firearms 

*h Intellectual awakening: growth of the spirit of adventure 
and enterprise; the New Learning, its nature: Erasmus, 
More, Colet ; establishment of new schools and colleges ; the 
drama ; the theater ; Shakspere and Bacon 

Library and notebook topics 
A Social conditions in England as revealed in Mora's Utopia 
B The revolt of the Netherlands 
C Why heretics were put to death 
D Spanish power in the i6th century 
E Political reasons for the coquetry of Elizabeth 
F Achievements of Elizabethan seamen 
G The gild and the modern trade union 
H The earliest attempts of the English to colonize America 

/ The poor laws of Elizabeth 

/ A day at Elizabeth's court 

VI The Puritan revolution and Royalist reaction, 1603-88 

24 Division between kings and Parliament 
*a Beginning of strife: change in national spirit about 1600; 
personality of James i; Hampton Court Conference; issues 
in the first Parliament; Gunpowder Plot; divine right of 
kings ; rule of favorites 
*h Increasing dififerences between Parliament and the Crown: 
characteristics of Charles i; the Petition of Right; tonnage 
and poundage ; Laud's policy and religious strife ; the disso- 
lution of 1629 and the emigration of Puritans; monopolies; 
ship money and Hampden's resistance; Wentworth's meas- 



206 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE UF NEW YORK 

ures; Laud and the outbreak in Scotland; the Short Parlia- 
ment 
*c The Long ParHament: meeting of the Long ParHament; 
impeachment and execution of Strafford; measures limiting 
the power of the king; division of Parliament on religious 
questions ; intriguing of Charles for support ; the Grand Re- 
monstrance; attempt to seize the five members; civil war 

25 Civil war and the commonwealth 

*a The first civil war; rival parties, their leaders and support; 
outbreak of the war; Cromwell and the Ironsides; Scottish 
alliance ; Solemn League' and Covenant ; Marston Moor ; di- 
visions in the parliamentary party; the Self-denying Ordi- 
nance ; the New Model ; Naseby ; negotiations of the king 

*^ The second civil war : alliance of the king with the Scots ; 
the battle of Preston; Pride's Purge; trial and execution of 
the king 

*c The Commonwealth: the Rump ParHament; conquest of 
Scotland and Ireland; Cromwell as Lord Protector; con- 
stitutional experiments; fall of the Commonwealth 
Map showing how England was divided between Puritan and 
Cavalier and the battlefields of the Puritan Revolution 

26 Restoration and revolution 

*a Political conditions: character and policy of the king; Par- 
liament and taxation 

*& Religious settlement: Act of Uniformity; penal legislation 
against dissent; condition of the Catholics and aims of the 
king; results in the American colonies 

*c Charles 2 and Louis 14: aims of the French king; war be- 
tween England and Holland; the secret Treaty of Dover; 
the Declaration of Indulgence ; the Test Act ; the Exclusion 
Bill ; Whigs and Tories 

*rf Overthrow of the Stuarts : national fear of a Catholic des- 
potism; assertion of dispensing power by the king; Catholics 
in office; a standing army; Declaration of Indulgence; peti- 
tion and trial of the seven bishops 

^e William of Orange: position and character of William; the 
summons to England ; flight of James 2 ; Parliament and the 
succession 

*/ Results of Revolution: Bill of Rights; Act of Toleration; 
Act of Settlement 
2y England and the continent 

a James i : foreign policy of James i ; the Thirty Years War 



HISTORY 207 

*b Cromwell: Navigation Act; war with Holland; war with 

Spain; England's influence in Europe during Cromwell's 

protectorate 
*c The restored Stuarts: wars between England and Holland; 

secret alliance of Charles 2 and Louis 14; the designs of 

Louis 14 

28 Ireland 

Ireland reconquered: condition of Ireland in 1600; Went- 
worth; rebeUion of 1641 ; conquest by Cromwell; the Crom- 
wellian settlement 

29 Commerce and colonies 

*a Colonies in America: colonies founded in America during 
the Stuart period ; influence on the American colonies of the 
civil and religious dissensions of the mother country; the 
navigation laws ; war with Spain, Jamaica ; war with Holland 
and the New Netherlands 

*b Commerce: trading posts in India; some of the principal 
articles of commerce in the 17th century 

30 Religious history 

*a An age of religious intolerance: causes of the intolerance; 
religious parties of the period ; laws to establish conformity ; 
the King James version; effects of the Gunpowder Plot on 
the position of the Catholics in England ; Laud and his policy ; 
attitude of Scotland toward the use of the prayer book ; the 
church question in Parliament; religious settlement of the 
Restoration; royal tolerance; national intolerance; religious 
conditions at the close of the period 

31 Life and literature 

*a Life : manner of life, dress and amusements of Cavalier and 

Roundhead 
*b Literature: establishment of the Royal Society of London 

and its significance ; King James version and its. influence on 

the English language ; the first newspapers ; Milton ; Bunyan ; 

Newton ; Harvey 

Library and notebook topics 
A Gunpowder Plot 
B The journey to Spain 
C Impeachment of Strafford 
D Attack on the five members 
E Trial of King Charles 2 
F Fall of the Rump Parliament 
G Trial of the seven bishops 



208 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

VII Constitutional monarchy, 1688-1820 

32 Establishment and development of constitutional monarchy 
*a Constitutional gains: Mutiny Act; Toleration Act; Bill of 

Rights ; Act of Settlement 

*& Growth of political parties: Whigs and Tories; the Sep- 
tennial Bill 

*c The Cabinet : party government through the Cabinet ; Robert 
Walpole; methods of controlling Parliament; personality and 
influence of the Hanoverian kings 

33 Scotland and Ireland 

a The Revolution in Scotland: Claverhouse; *the union of 
1707; the Jacobites; the risings of 1715 and 1745 

*& Ireland: course of King James 2; siege of Londonderry; 
battle of Boyne; condition of Ireland through the i8th cen- 
tury; home rule 1782-1800; the rebellion of 1798; the United 
•Kingdom 1801 

34 Conflicts with France on three continents 

*a Rivalry of William 3 and Louis 14; French support of the 
Stuarts ; league against Louis ; La Hogue ; the war in Amer- 
ica; the Treaty of Ryswick 

*b The War of the Spanish succession : the causes ; the allies ; 
Marlborough and his companions ; Gibraltar, Acadia and 
Hudson bay; attitude of English parties toward the war; 
Treaty of Utrecht 

*c The War of the Austrian Succession: causes; allies; Detin- 
gen ; Fontenoy ; Louisburg ; Treaty of Aix la Chapelle 

*<i War continued in the colonies : *strife for the Ohio valley ; 
Braddock's defeat; rivalry with the French in India; the 
work of Dupleix and Clive 

^e Seven Years War: causes; allies; Pitt's administration; 
British successes ; Wolfe ; Treaty of Paris 

*/ The Revolution : aid from France for the American colonies ; 
the allies against England ; Yorktown ; treaties of peace 

*g The French Revolution: conditions in France 1789; the 
English feeling at first concerning the French Revolution ; 
the Reign of Terror ; war on the revolutionists ; rise of Na- 
poleon ; battle of the Nile ; the Treaty of Amiens 

*h The war with Napoleon : coalitions against Napoleon ; the 
work of Nelson; Austerlitz and Jena; Wellesley and the 
Peninsular War; *commercial warfare leading to war with 



HISTORY 209 

the United States ; Napoleon in Russia ; Elba ; Waterloo , bt 
Helena 

35 Colonies 

*a America : colonial policy of European nations ; English re- 
strictions on colonial trade ; aims of George 3 ; Whigs and 
Tories in England and America; outbreak of the American 
Revolution; war in New England; the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence ; war in the Middle States ; Saratoga and the French 
alliance; war in the South; Yorktown and the independence 
of American colonies ; loss of other colonies ; change in the 
treatment of colonies 

*b India: the East India Co. 1750; French rivalry; Clive and 
Dupleix; conquest of Bengal; methods of governing India; 
Warren Hastings ; the Mahratta War 

*c Canada : conquest ; loyalty during the American Revolution ; 
the Hudson's Bay Co. 

*d Australia and New Zealand : discovery ; convict settlements ; 
wool growing 

*e Minor colonies: the West India colonies; sugar raising; 
slavery ; Cape Colony, acquired, surrendered, regained ; Gib- 
raltar, St Helena 

36 Manufactures and commerce: the industrial revolution 

*a Changes in manufacturing: the coming of the French Hugue- 
nots ; coal mines and iron works ; inventions and the use of 
machinery ; the factory system ; new centers of population ; 
effects on the working classes 

*b Agriculture : improvements in tillage and breeding ; decrease 
of small landholders 
c Canals 

37 Reform movements 

*a Religious reforms : religious conditions in the first part of 

the i8th century ; the Wesleys and Whitfield 
*5 Philanthropic reforms : Howard and the prisons ; Wilber- 

f orce and the slave trade ; changes in penal laws ; care of the 

poor 
*c Political reforms: Pitt's influence in purifying politics; 

Burke and economic reforms ; freedom of the press 

38 National life, learning and literature 

*a Life of the people: dress and social customs; roads; means 
and methods of travel 



210 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

*b Banking and finance: Bank of England; national debt 

*c Education : Sunday schools and day schools 

*d Writers : Pope, Swift, Addison, Defoe, Adam Smith 

Library and notebook topics 

A The union of Scotland and England 

B The coffee house 

C Pitt the war minister 

D Pitt and the American colonies 

E A comparison of political conditions in England and America 

in 1765 
F Nelson at Trafalgar 
G Watt and Stephenson 

VIII The British Empire, 1820- 

39 Parliamentary reform 

*a The " rotten boroughs " : reforms demanded after the Amer- 
ican Revolution ; effects of the French Revolution on public 
sentiment; the contest of 1832; results 

*& The Chartists : Chartist demands and their treatment ; ex- 
tension of suffrage in 1867 and 1884 

40 Government in England at the present time 

*a The Constitution ; its nature ; how it may be changed 

*& The voters 

*c Parliament: the peerage; the House of Lords and its com- 
position; the House of Commons, how chosen and how dis- 
solved 

*d Executive powers: the place of the king in the government; 
the Cabinet, how chosen; powers and duties of the Cabinet 

*^ The judiciary 

41 Taxation and trade 

*a The Corn Laws : conflicting views of Peel and Cobden ; re- 
peal of the Corn Law 
b The Navigation Law : repeal of the Navigation Law ; Eng- 
lish imports and exports; ^effect of the free trade policy on 
the development of English trade 

*c Present methods of taxation 

42 Industrial progress 

*a Public improvements : the development of the locomotive ; 
railroad building; McAdam and Telford; the telegraph; 
cheap postage ; steamship lines 
b Trade unions 



HISTORY 211 

*c Present manufacturing centers 
Map showing manufacturing and commercial cities of the 
British Isles 

43 Colonies 

*a Canada: The Hudson's Bay Co.; the rebellion of 1837; the 
Dominion; the Constitution of 1867; development of the 
country 

*/; Indian: enlargement of British territory; the Sepoy Mutiny; 
proclamation of the empire, 1876; Burma; the present gov- 
ernment and condition of India 

*c Australasia: discovery of gold; development of the country; 
the federation of 1901 

*d South Africa : rivalry of Dutch and English settlers ; indus- 
tries and development of southern Africa; the South Africa 
Company and its work ; the Boer Wars ; the union of South 
Africa 

*e Possessions and minor colonies: the Suez canal, how ac- 
quired; the English in Egypt; Central Africa and South 
Africa ; strongholds and coaling stations 

*/ Relations of the colonies to the home government; methods 
of British rule ; growth of the imperial idea 
Map shozving British empire with dates of acquisition of its 
dependencies 

44 Foreign affairs 

*a Rivalries and alliances with other countries: the Crimean 
War — causes, allies, results; the Alabama Claims and the 
principle of arbitration; the Berlin Congress; the English 
occupation of Egypt 

*& England's position among the nations of today 

45 Ireland 

*a The famine of 1845-49: causes and results; emigration 
*h Land tenure : the Irish Land Acts ; the Land League 
*c Agitation for Home Rule: the Fenians; Parnell and Glad- 
stone 

46 Literature 

Leading English authors of the 19th century: poets; novelists; 
essayists and critics ; historians ; scientific writers 

47 Social conditions 

*a Agriculture: land tenure in England, Scotland and Ireland; 
decline of agricultural prosperity ; reasons for the decline of 
agriculture 

14 



212 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

*b Labor: condition of laborers in factories before 1830; 
Shaftesbury and the reform of factory laws; present condi- 
tion of labor 

Library and notebook topics 

Digests of current magazine articles on matters affecting England 
and her colonies 

48 General summary and review 

MODERN HISTORY 

From the fall of the Roman Empire to the present with emphasis 

on the history of England 

In providing a course of modern history as an option for ancient 
and English history, two ideas have been dominant : first to bring 
the student into closer touch with modern history ; second, to make 
prominent the continuity of history by showing the origins of 
American life and thought. This syllabus then may be considered 
an attempt to adapt history teaching to present day needs. 

The course is planned primarily for secondary students whose 
schooling for citizenship will end in the high school; but it should 
prove equally valuable for those preparing for college. Students 
familiar with this course should have no difficulty in passing college 
entrance examinations in English or in modern history. The needs 
of the few who must offer ancient history for college entrance can 
be met in all large schools by providing an option in that subject. 

This outline is prepared to cover the second and third years of 
the high school course with a minimum requirement of three periods 
a week. To accomplish the course successfully supervision of 
library and notebook work must be given outside the required reci- 
tation periods. 

In all cases the topics of the syllabus, not those of the textbook, 
should be followed closely. Much that appears in many textbooks 
should be omitted ; for unless a policy of careful elimination is pur- 
sued, classes will be overworked and will have gained only a vague 
knowledge of innumerable details. 

It is not the purpose of this syllabus to present in detail the his- 
tory of each nation of Europe, but rather to exhibit those move- 
ments, events and institutions that are common to many nations. 

The names of persons who gave impulse or character to an era, 
the events that mark off epochs of human progress are the most 
worthy of many-sided illumination ; for it should be borne in mind 
that average high school students are neither specialists in history 
nor antiquaries ; yet as human beings they are entitled to know the 



HISTORY 



213 



steps by which man has surmounted his environment and enlarged 
his sympathies and his outlook. 

It will be objected by some that the course outlined calls for the 
use of several textbooks. 

That objection is certainly not valid in schools that supply free 
textbooks ; nor should it prove a matter of serious concern in any 
school. A brief outline of ancient history and a well balanced 
textbook of modern history are all that a student should need to buy, 
provided the school library is supplied with an assortment of good 
textbooks of ancient and English history. 

In teaching this new course, however, special obligations of fore- 
thought and guidance are imposed on the teacher by the very extent 
of time and space involved. 

Lists of required readings to be varied from year to year will 
be found on pages 290-300. One or more questions based on these 
required readings will be included in each examination. Questions 
calling for minute details will not be asked. 



MODERN fflSTORY, PART i 




Primitive man 



II The ancient Mediter- 
ranean world 



The achievements of prehistoric man 
in industry; in government 

2 The Nile valley compared with that 

of the Tigris-Euphrates ; the peoples 
in each 

3 The land of Syria; the Phenecians; 

the Hebrews; the organization of 
the Persian Empire 

4 The early age of Greece 

5 The city-state as a Greek political 

ideal 

6 Athens and Athenian life 

7 Contributions of Greece to European 

civilization 

8 Physical Italy and Rome, position in 

the Mediterranean basin 

9 Rome and Roman life described 

10 The conquest of the world 

1 1 Causes of the break-up of the Roman 

Empire and Rome's contribution 
to civilization 



_ ^ In the following general surveys and outlines of modern history and American 
history, use was made of surveys and outlines copyrighted 1901 and 1904 by 
Walter H. Gushing. 



214 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 




III The transition period 
from ancient to medieval 
history 



IV Invasions by the 
Northmen 



V The papacy and the be- 
ginnings of the new Ger- 
man-Roman empire 



VI The formation of 
France 



VII Norman England 
I 066-1 154 



VIII England under the 
Plantagenets , 1154-1377 



IX The East and the Cru- 
sades 



' 12 The invasions and break-up of the 
Western Empire, 376-476 a.d. 

13 Continued invasions and formation 

of Germanic states 

14 The east: one emperor (Constanti- 

nople); a new prophet, 476-732 

A.D. 

15 The rise of the Christian Church 

-; 16 The growth of the Prankish power: 
a new emperor 

17 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to 

the Rhine 

18 The decline of the Carolingian em- 

pire and the formation of separate 
monarchies 

19 The beginnings of feudalism 

20 The Northmen in Italy, France, 

Russia 

2 1 The Northmen in England 

22 Germany to the death of Oi.to the 

Great, 973 

23 The struggle oyer the right of in- 

vestiture to 1 122 

24 Frederick Barbarossa, 1152-90 

25 Innocent 3 and his position in 

Christendom, 1 198-12 16 

26 Frederick 2 and the fall of the 

Hohenstaufen 

27 The rise of the Capetian dynasty to 

1180 

28 France under Philip Augustus and 

St Louis, 1 180-1270 

29 Philip the Fair, 1285-1314, and Pope 

Boniface 8, 1 294-1 303 

30 The establishment of Norman rule 

31 The Church and the Crusades 

32 Life in the feudal period 

33 England and France 

34 Ireland, Wales and Scotland 

35 Constitutional development 

36 The Church 

37 Commerce and manufactures 

38 Life in Plantagenet England 

39 The East before the Crusades 

40 The Crusades 

41 End of the Crusades 



M 



HISTORY 



215 




X The era of the Renais- 
sance, 14th and 15th 
centuries 



XI The Protestant revolt 
and the wars of reUgion ' 



XII The Reformation in 
England; the Tudors, 
I 485-1 603 



XIII The Puritan revolu- 
tion and RoyaHst reac- 
tion in England, 1603-88 



42 Germany and the Empire 

43 France in the 14th and 15th cen- 

turies; the Hundred Years War 

44 The last of the Plantagenets in 

England; Wars of the Roses 

45 Consolidation of Spain into a power- 

ful monarchy 

46 Political and social conditions in 

Italy in the 14th and 15th cen- 
turies 

47 The beginning of the Renaissance 

in Italy; the revival of learning 

48 The fine arts during the Renais- 

sance 

49 The age of great discoveries and 

inventions 

50 Reform movements of the 15th cen- 
, tury 

[ 51 The eve of the Protestant revolt in 
Germany 

52 The Lutheran revolt to 1525 

53 Charies 5 and the Protestant revolt 

in Germany, 1526-55 

54 John Calvin and his work 

55 Rise of Protestantism in France 

56 France under Henry 4 

57 The Catholic reformation and the 

Jesuits 

58 The revolt of the Netherlands, 1 568- 

1648 
, 59 The Thirty Years War, 1618-48 
'60 The establishment of centralized 

monarchy 

61 Extension of national power abroad 

62 The Church of England and the rise 

of Puritanism 

63 Trade and colonies 

, 64 Life in Tudor England 
"^65 Division between kings and Parlia- 
ment 

66 Civil war and Commonwealth 

67 Restoration and revolution 

68 England and the continent 

69 Ireland 

70 Commerce and colonies 

71 Religious intolerance and sectarian- 

ism 
. 72 Life and Hterature 



2l6 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



-1 






4 

M 


" 6 


General survey of the field (concluded) 


IS 






' 73 Explorations and early settlements 








before Jamestown 


I 






74 Virginia, a typical southern colony 


2 






75 Maryland, the Carolinas and Georgia 


I 






76 Beginnings of the colonization of 




13 


XIV Colonial England, 


New England 


I 




I 497-1 760 


77 Early Massachusetts 


I 






78 New England, 1636-70 


3 






79 New York 


2 






80 Pennsylvania 


2 






* 81 Richelieu and Mazarin and the estab- 








lishment of the absolute mon- 




4 


XV The ascendancy of 


archy 


I 




France and the age of 


82 Louis 14 and his court, 1661-1715 


I 




Louis 14 


83 The people; Colbert and his re- 








forms 


I 






84 The wars of Louis 14 


I 


10 




General summary and review 


10 



OUTLINE OF MODERN HISTORY, PART I 

I Primitive man 

1 The achievements of primitive man in industry ; in government 
a The hunting and fishing stage 

b Domestication of animals 
c Beginnings of agriculture 
d Weapons and tools 

e Government: (i) savage organization, (2) patriarchal so- 
ciety, (3) tribal organization, (4) the clan 

II The ancient Mediterranean world 

2 The Nile valley compared with the Tigris-Euphrates valley : 

the peoples in each 

a Egypt : social classes ; industrial arts ; fine arts ; hierogly- 
phics ; science ; religion ; existing monuments 

b Babylonia-Assyria : classes of the people ; industries ; cunei- 
form writing; science; religion; buildings 

3 The land of Syria : the Phenecians ; the Hebrews 
a Phenecia : commerce ; colonies 

b Hebrews : patriarchal government ; idea of God 
c Persia : organization of an empire ; Darius 

4 The early age of Greece 



HISTORY 217 

a The land of Greece 

b The Mycenaean age 

c The Homeric poems and the Homeric age : simple society ; 
classes of people; occupations; arts; governmental organiza- 
tion 

d Colonization : difference between ancient and modern 
colonies 

5 The city-state as the Greek political ideal 

a The city-state and its difference from a modern (country) 

state 
b Athens and Sparta contrasted 
c Democratic and oligarchic states 

6 Athens and Athenian life 

a The city described by maps, plans and illustrations 
b The daily life of Athenians : houses ; religious temples ; occu- 
pations ; industries ; amusements ; education 

7 Contributions of Greece to European civilization 
a Arts 

b Literature : drama, history, philosophy — Aristotle as a type 

c Government, democratic ideals 

d Education, specially physical education 

8 Physical Italy and Rome ; position in the Mediterranean basin ; 

early Roman life 

9 Rome and Roman life 

a The city described by maps, plans and illustrations 
b The daily life of the people: houses; religious temples; oc- 
cupations; industries; manufactures; science; amusements; 
education 

10 The conquest of the world 

a The expansion of Roman power traced on a map 
b Organization of the Empire: roads; the army 
c Influence as shown by remains in distant Britain 

11 Causes of the break-up of the Empire and Rome's contribu- 

tions to European civilization 

a Causes of the break-up: evils of the slavery system; op- 
pressive taxation; caste system; decrease of population; 
widespread luxury; decline of religious feeling; Christianity; 
the Germans 

b Contributions to civilization : arts ; the arch ; aqueducts ; 
domes; vaults; present remains; literature; government; 
law 



2l8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Map zvork 

1 On an outline map of the ancient world locate the differ- 
ent peoples that contributed to the early civilization of the 
Mediterranean basin. Locate also the cities : Babylon, 
Nineveh, Memphis, Thebes, Tyre, Jerusalem, Athens, 
Sardis, Rome, Carthage, Syracuse 

2 On an outline map of the ancient world indicate (a) the 
Roman Empire at its greatest extent in color, (&) the gen- 
eral location of Keltic and Teutonic races prior to the great 
Teutonic migrations of the Christian era by horizontal and 
vertical lines respectively 

3 An outline of Athens and its environs 

4 An outline of Rome, showing the seven hills, the location 
of the forum, the Colisseum, St Peters 

Picture collections or drawings, showing the art, architecture 
and life of ancient Greece and Rome 

III Transition period from ancient to medieval history, 376-800 
A.D. 

12 Invasions and break-up of Western Empire, 376-476 a. d. 

a The Germans : appearance ; religion ; government ; occupa- 
tions ; the invasions of the West Goths (Alaric), 376-410 
A. D. ; other invasions 

13 Continued invasions, and formation of Germanic states, 476- 

774 A. D. 

a Condition of Europe in 476 a. d. 

b Italy: the Ostrogoths, 493-552 a. d. (Theodoric) ; Lombards, 
568-774 A. D. 

c Gaul : the Franks 

d Spain: the decaying kingdom of the Visigoths (to 711 a. d.) 

e Results of invasions: fusion of the two peoples (language, 
law, religion) 

/ Britain : Saxons and Angles ; their European home, customs, 
institutions ; the conquest, causes, manner of coming, de- 
struction of Roman and Celtic institutions, sections of 
Britain occupied ; the Saxon supremacy, fusion of the 
tribes ; Egbert, supremacy of Wessex, character of the union 
established by Egbert 

Map work 
I Map showing routes of migrations and final places of settle- 
ments of the Teutonic tribes 



HISTORY -^9 

2 Map showing political and racial division of Britain about 

600 A. D. 

Library and notebook topics 

A Britain as Caesar found it 

B The Germans as Tacitus described them 

14 The East: one emperor (Constantinople); a new prophet, 

476-732 A. D. . r , 1 

a Justinian : conquests, and codification of the law 
b The rise of Mohammedanism : Mohammed ; his religious sys- 
tem ; Saracen conquests 

Library and notebook topics 
A The Saracen conquest of Spain 
B Important teachings of the Koran 

15 " The rise of the Christian Church " 

a Early organization of the Church ; growth of the Papal power 

to 600 A. D. 

b Differences and divisions 
c Monasticism 

Library and notebook topics 

A Pope Gregory the Great 

B The life of St Columban and the work of the Irish monks 

C Influences of the early Church 

D The Benedictine Rule 

16 The growth of the Prankish power ; a new emperor, 486-800 

A. D. 

a Clevis and the Merovingians 

b The Carohngians as -mayors"; battle of Tours, 732 a.d. 
c The Carolingians as kings ; Lombardy 

d Charlemagne: the king crowned emperor, 800 a.d.; the 
organization of the empire 

Library and notebook topics 
A Boniface and his v/ork 
B The Salic law 

C The conversion of Clovis as told by Gregory of Tours 
D Personal characteristics of Charlemagne 
E The ordeal as a legal proof of guilt or innocence 
F Charlemagne's conception of the duties of an emperor (as shown 

in the capitulary of the year 802) 
G The Palace School 



220 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

17 Retrospect, from the Euphrates to the Rhine 

Map work 

On an outline map of the ancient world show approximately 
the territory ruled by Charlemagne (800 a. d.), the terri- 
tory ruled by Mohammedans, and the Eastern Empire 

18 The decline of the Carolingian empire, and the formation of 

separate monarchies 
a The events that led to the Treaties of Verdun and of Mer- 
sen ; terms of the treaties 

Special map zvork 

Boundaries of the three kingdoms at the Treaty of Verdun 

19 The beginnings of feudalism 

a Definition of the terms benefice and vassalage, and explana- 
tion of the fief as the central institution of feudalism 

b Lord, vassal, and subvassal, their respective duties, rights 
and privileges 

c Importance of feudalism from a military, financial, adminis- 
trative, and social point of view 

IV Invasions by the Northmen 

20 The Northmen in Italy, France and Russia 

a The Northmen: the lands they lived in; manner of life; the 

Vikings 
b In Italy, Robert Guiscard ; in France, Rollo ; in Russia, Ruric 

21 The Northmen in England 

a Conditions in England before the invasions of the Northmen 

( 1 ) The early English church : Augustine, the Roman and 
Irish missionaries ; the Council of Whitby ; monasteries 
and abbeys; life of the monks, their routine, industries, 
schools, hospitality 

(2) Government and life in Saxon England 
Government : moots ; courts ; trial by ordeal ; the Wiltan 

and its power ; selection and power of the king 
Life among the Saxons of the loth century: the village 
and its f olkland ; homes and furnishings ; food ; clothing ; 
agriculture ; trades ; manufactures 
b The struggle against the invasions of the Northmen 

( 1 ) Great Saxon leaders : Alfred ; Treaty of Wedmore ; the 
Danelaw ; Dunstan 

(2) The Danish kings: renewed attacks and successes of the 
Danes ; dominions and government of Sweyn and Canute 



HISTORY 221 

(3) Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwin; Harold, his 
difficulties ; claim of William of Normandy ; the Battle of 
Senlac 

Map work 

1 Map of England in Alfred's day 

2 Settlements made by Northmen in Europe 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Saxon hundred and township 

B Alfred, the man and the king 

C The settlement of the Normans in France 

D The vikings, their education and manner of life as described in 

DuChaillu's Joining Age 
E Canute's letter to his people 

V The papacy and the beginning of the new German-Roman 
empire 

22 Germany and Italy, to the death of Otto the Great, 973 

a Stem-duchies and first elective kings (Henry i, 919-36) 
b Revival of the Empire by Otto the Great, 962 

23 The struggle over the right of investiture, to 1122 

a Causes and beginnings of the struggle for the right of in- 
vestiture: the youth and education of Henry 4; increasing 
power of the papacy, 1059-73; importance of the ceremony 
of investiture 

b Demands of Gregory 7; the ban; necessity for its removal; 
the pilgrimage to Canossa 

c The end of the struggle: its course to the death of Gregory 
7; the Concordat of Worms, 1122 

24 Frederick i ( Barbarossa), 1152-90 

a Beginning of the struggle with the Lombard communes 
b The struggle with the popes 

c The end of Frederick's struggles in Italy : the Lombard 
League; the Peace of Venice; progress in Germany 

25 Innocent 3 and his position in Christendom, 1198-1216 

a Means by which the Church ruled the world : papal legates ; 
papal revenues ; church courts ; excommunication and inter- 
dict ; moral and intellectual power 

b Innocent and England 

c Innocent and France 

d Innocent and the Empire: the rival rulers of Germany and 
the Battle of Bouvines, 12 14 



222 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

26 Frederick 2 and the fall of the Hohenstaufen 

a Frederick 2 and Gregory 9: causes of enmity; the crusade 
and its results ; progress of hostilities to the death of Greg- 
ory 9, 1 24 1 

b Frederick 2 and Innocent 4; Frederick's misfortunes and 
death ; the last of the Hohenstaufen dynasty 

c General results of the struggles between emperors and popes 

VI The formation of France, to 1328 

27 The rise of the Capetian dynasty, to 1180 
a The great fiefs of France 

b The accession of Hugh Capet, 987 

28 France under Philip Augustus and St Louis, 1180-1270 
a The extension of the king's domain 

b The development of the central government 

Special map work 

France under Philip Augustus, showing chief divisions of 
France and terriT;ory acquired during his reign 

29 Philip the Fair of France, 1285-1314, and Pope Boniface 8, 

I 294-1 303 

a Power of the Papacy; causes of the quarrel between Boniface 
and Philip 

b Progress of the quarrel 

c Death of Boniface 

d The power of the king at the close of the quarrel ; the estates- 
general of 1302 

e The Papacy at Avignon 

Chart, showing the leading contemporary rulers and popes in 
parallel columns with dates, one column for England, one for 
France, one for Germany, one for the Papacy (800-1300) 

VII Norman England, 1066-1154 

30 Establishment of Norman rule 

a Completion of the conquest: castle building; grants of land; 
crushing of Northumbria ; the Domesday Book and the Salis- 
bury Oath 

b Characteristics of William the Conqueror 

c Tyranny of William Rufus 

d Government of Henry i : the Saxon marriage ; Charter of 
Liberties ; king's courts ; Normandy an English duchy 

31 The Church 

Double control by Church and state: organization of the 
Church ; Church courts and what they did ; relations of Wil- 



HISTORY 223 

Ham I and Gregory 7; strife of investitures; the Church and 
learning"; churchmen as statesmen 

32 Life of the feudal period 

a Feudal relations: duties of lord, vassal and serf 

b The feudal estate: the castle; the manor; division of lands 

c Differences between English and continental feudalism 

d Warfare: weapons; manner of fighting; treatment of 

prisoners ; knighthood and chivalry 
e Antagonism of Norman and Saxon : reasons and effects 
/ Education; language and literature; manufactures; trade; 

travel ; amusements 

Library and notebook topics 

A Ground plan of a feudal castle 

B Battle of Senlac 

C Hereward the Wake 

D Comparison of Norman and Saxon characteristics 

VIII England under the Plantagenets, 1 154-1485 

33 England and France 

a Henry 2 and his dominions 

Map of the territory ruled by Henry 2 

b Weakness of England under John and Henry 3 : loss of 

Normandy ; gradual loss of other possessions 
Map showing England's possessions in France at the Outbreak 

of the Hundred Years War 
c Beginning of the Hundred Years War : claim of Edward 3 

to the French throne ; Crecy ; the Black Prince ; Poitiers 
d Renewal of war with France : work of Joan of Arc ; close 

of the war 

34 Ireland, Wales and Scotland 

a Ireland : early history ; Henry 2 in Ireland ; the English 
Pale; life on the island 

h Wales : early relations with England ; the Welsh marches ; 
conquests by Edward i ; revolts and reconquests 

c Scotland : border warfare ; alliance of Scotland and France ; 
union of England and Scotland ; Bruce ; Bannockburn ; recog- 
nition of Scottish independence in 1328 

35 Constitutional development 

a Organized government : political condition of England at the 
accession of Henry 2 ; character of Henry 2 ; royal power 
increased by conquest of the barons, scutage, judicial re- 



224 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

forms, the council ; Henry 2 and the Church ; sale of charters 
by Richard i 

b Magna Charta : King John and his quarrel with the barons ; 
part taken by Stephen Langton ; granting the charter; prin- 
cipal provisions and importance of the charter in English 
history 

c The first Parliament : Henry 3 and the Barons' War ; char- 
acteristics of the king ; grievances of the people ; Provisions 
of Oxford ; divisions among the barons and results ; rule of 
Simon de Montfort; Parliament of 1265; Evesham and its 
results 

d The Model Parliament and taxation: Edward i, character, 
aims and policy; composition and importance of the Model 
Parliament ; confirmation of the charters 

e Parliament deposes Edward 2 

/ House of Lords and House of Commons : character of Ed- 
ward 3 ; division of Parliament into two houses ; Parliament 
and taxation ; the Good Parliament 

36 The Church : the secular clergy ; the monks 

a Church and state : strife between Henry 2 and Thomas a 
Becket; quarrel between John and the pope; establishment 
of papal power; increase of the wealth of the Church; the 
statutes of Mortmain, Provisors and Premunire, why they 
were passed and what they did 
h The friars and their work : Franciscans and Dominicans 
c Lollards: causes of the Lollard movement; Wyclif ; persecu- 
tion of the Lollards 

37 Commerce and manufactures 

a Commerce : the principal commodities ; merchant gilds, mer- 
chants of the staple; fairs; markets; the Hanseatic League; 
merchant adventures ; trade routes 

h Manufactures : early manufactures ; coming of the Flemish 
weavers ; development of woolen manufactures ; craft gilds 

38 Life of Plantagenet England 

a General progress: union of Saxon and Norman; growth of 
towns ; outward appearance of a medieval town ; decrease of 
villenage ; increasing wealth and importance of the artisan 
class 

h The Peasants' Rising : manorial system ; medieval agriculture ; 
village life; the Black Death and its effect on industry; 
Statute of Laborers; growth of democratic sentiment; Wat 
Tyler's Rebellion and its overthrow ; permanent results 



HISTORY 225 

c Warfare : the castle ; weapons and armor ; religious military 
orders, their organization, power and decadence; decline of 
chivalry ; use of gunpowder 

d Intellectual progress : development of the English language ; 
Chaucer; Wyclif; Langland; cathedral building; medieval 
schools in monasteries and cathedrals ; rise of the universities 
subjects of study, the " seven liberal arts, the trivium and 
the quadrivium " ; introduction of printing 

e Travel and amusement; home life of noble and peasant 

Library and notebook topics 

A The principles of Magna Charta that have become embodied in 

English and American government 
B A summary of the relations between the Papacy and English 

sovereigns covering the reigns of William i, Henry 2, John and 

Edward i 
C Life in England as portrayed by Chaucer 
D Feudal England as seen in Ivanhoe 
E The restrictions and dangers of commerce in the Plantagenet 

period 
F A medieval fair 

G The introduction of the printing press in England 
H The early use of gunpowder in war 

/ The character of Richard 3 as seen in Shakspere's Richard 3 
J The life of medieval students 
K A description of some particular castle, e. g. Tower of London, 

Kenilworth, Edinburg 
L A Gothic cathedral, e. g. Lincoln, Salisbury 
M A study of some town, e. g. Chester, Oxford, London 
A'^ A day in a Benedictine monastery 
O Picture collections or drawings illustrating: divisions of manorial 

lands; medieval arms and armor; agricultural implements; 

cathedrals ; monasteries 

IX The East and the Crusades, 1096-1270 

Note. No attempt should be made to have the pupil learn the events 
of each crusade. 

39 The East before the Crusades 
a The Eastern empire 

b Saracen civilization 

c The coming of the Seljuk Turks 

40 The Crusades 

a General causes and occasion for the Crusades 
b Character of the expeditions 
c The kingdom of Jerusalem 



226 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d The religious-military orders : Templars, Hospitallers, Teu- 
tonic Knights 

41 The end of the crusades 

a The fall of Acre and end of Christian rule in the East 

b Results of the crusades: commercial; industrial ; religious ; 

educational ; growth of Italian cities ; municipal freedom ; 

strengthening of monarchies 

Library and notebook topics 

A Constantinople in the Middle Ages 

B Medieval pilgrimages 

C The experience of a medieval crusader : motives ; vou^s ; privi- 
leges ; preparation; dress; arms; route; battles and sieges; benefits 
and disadvantages of the experience 

X The era of the Renaissance, 14th and 15th centuries 

42 Germany and the Empire, 1 273-1 493 

a Rise of Austria and of the house of Hapsburg: Rudolph of 
Hapsburg; the powers of the emperor and of the seven 
electors; the Golden Bull of 1356; the Hapsburgs and their 
policy 

b Eastward expansion: the Mark of Brandenburg; the Teu- 
tonic Knights 

c The rise of the cities; the Hanseatic League 

d Rise of the Swiss Confederation 

e Charles the Bold of Burgundy 

/ The weakness of the Empire at the end of the 15th century 

Chart, showing contemporary European rulers in the 14th and 
15th centuries {see under 29] 

43 France in the 14th and 15th centuries; the Hundred Years 

War. Review 33 

44 The last of the Plantagenets in England ; Wars of the Roses 
a Parliament and Richard 2: rule and deposition of Richard 2 
b Divisions among the nobles ; rivalry of Lancaster and York 
c Wars of the Roses 

Causes for civil strife ; Warwick ; Bosworth Field and ac- 
cession of the Tudors ; results of the wars 

45 The consolidation of Spain into a powerful monarchy 
a The Christian recovery of Spain 

b The union of Castile and Aragon 

c The conquest of Granada and treatment of the Moors 
d Growth of the royal power, to the opening of the i6th 
century 



HISTORY 227 

46 Political and social conditions in Italy in the 14th and 15th 

centuries : Florence and Venice ; the papal monarchy ; the 
two Sicilies ; the rule of the despots 

47 The beginning of the Renaissance in Italy ; the revival of 

learning 
a The spirit and meaning of the Renaissance : its many-sided 

character 
b Italian literature : Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio 
c The revival of learning: the Greek teachers; the work of 

Petrarch and Boccaccio ; the recovery, editing, and printing 

of classical texts 
d Renaissance in England ; in France ; in Germany 

48 The fine arts during the Renaissance 
a The great architects 

b The chief sculptors 

c The Florentine and Venetian painters 

d Painting in northern countries 

Library and notebook topic 

Picture collection representing the art of Renaissance 

49 The age of the great discoveries and inventions 

a European conditions at the end of the 15th century which 
led to discoveries and inventions 

b Portuguese discoveries to the east 

c Spanish discoveries and conquests in the western world 

d French explorations : Verrazano ; Cartier 

e Mechanical inventions of the era and how they helped dis- 
covery and conquest 

/ The new ideas in astronomy : Copernicus and Galileo 

g The art of printing: its relation to the Renaissance 

Ma/' ivork 

Sketch map showing the voyages of discovery of Columbus, 
Vasco da Gama, Cabot and Magellan, Verrazano and Car- 
tier 

50 Reforming movements of the 15th century 

a Councils of Pisa, Constance and Basel: what each attempted 

and why they failed 
b Reformers: Hus ; Savonarola: Wyclif 

XI The Protestant revolt and the wars of religion, 1517-1648 

Preliminary to this study the following will be foiuid useful : 
Map work: A map showing the boimdaries of the Empire 
under Charles 5 of Spain 
15 



228 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Chart: Showing contemporary rulers of Europe from 1500- 
1700 

51 The eve of the Protestant revolt in Germany 
a Germany at the opening of the i6th century 

b The Church : conditions that encouraged heresy 
c Erasmus and the German humanists 

52 The Lutheran revolt, to 1525 

a Martin Luther, to the Diet of Worms, 1521 : his early life; 
the question of the indulgences and the posting of the theses, 
1517; the Leipzig disputation, 15 19; the burning of the 
Papal bull and canon law, 1520 

b The Emperor Charles 5 and the Diet of Worms, 1521 ; elec- 
tion of the emperor; Luther before the diet; the Edict of 
Worms 

c Fanaticism and. revolution in Germany 

53 Charles 5 and the Protestant revolt in Germany, 1526-55 

a Charles's rivalry with Francis i and his attitude toward the 

Protestants, 1526-46 
b Attacks of the Turks 
c The religious peace of Augsburg, 1555: the limited nature 

of its tolerance 

54 John Calvin and his work 

a Early history, character, and behefs of John Calvin, to 1536 

b Calvin's activity in Geneva, 1536-64 

c Influence of Calvin and Geneva on Germany, France, Hol- 
land, Scotland, England and America 

d Calvin and Servetus ; religious intolerance general ; why 
heretics were put to death 

55 Rise of Protestantism in France, to 1572 

a Beginnings of a Protestant party : persecutions under 

Francis i, 1515-47 
b Increase and organization of the Protestants 
c Civil wars under Charles 9 : Catherine de' Medici and the 

Guises ; Coligny ; how the Huguenots gradually gained 

privileges 
d The Massacre of St Bartholomew, 1572; attitude of Europe 

toward the massacre 

56 France under Henry 4 

a Henry of Navarre's struggle for the crown: battle of Ivry; 

his abjuration 
b The Edict of Nantes, 1598 



HISTORY 229 

c Henry 4 and Sully: reforms in finances and agriculture 
d Henry 4's death ; his character 

57 The Catholic reformation and the Jesuits 

a The Jesuits: Loyola's character and training; organization, 
objects and methods of the Society of Jesus; their work 

b The work of the Council of Trent, 1545-63 

c How the Catholic church was reformed in discipline and 
gained new power 

Library and notebook topics 

A Jesuit missionary efforts 

B The services of Jesuit missionaries in North America 

58 The revolt of the Netherlands, 1 568-1648 
a The Netherlands to 1556 

h Philip 2 and the outbreak of discontent : political, religious 

and economic causes of the revolt 
c The leadership of William the Silent ; his work 

Library and notebook topics 

A The siege of Leyden 

B Dutch life at the opening of the 17th century 

59 The Thirty Years War, 1618-48 
a The strife of parties in Germany 

h Gustavus Adolphus, the champion of German Protestantism: 
his death 

c Wallenstein : his influence, dismissal, return and assassina- 
tion 

d French aims and interference 

e The Peace of Westphalia : its terms and international im- 
portance 

/ Social and economic effects of the war on Germany 

XII The Reformation in England: the Tudors, 1485-1603 

60 The establishment of centralized monarchy 

a Henry 7 : condition of the country. Church, nobles and 
middle classes after the Wars of the Roses ; law against 
maintenance and livery; the Court of the Star Chamber; 
benevolences ; artillery ; avoidance of foreign wars 

b Henry 8: the personal government of Henry 8 as seen in his 
treatment of his wives, his ministers and Parliament ; di- 
vorce of Katherine ; Act of Supremacy; confiscation of the 
monasteries; creation of a "new nobility'' 



230 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

61 Extension of national power abroad 

a The Tudor peace policy : alliances and diplomacy of Henry 7 ; 
the caution of Elizabeth 

b The war with Spain : causes of the war ; the Armada and its 
effect on national spirit; defeat of the Armada; Elizabethan 
seamen; England's position at the close of the Tudor period 

62 The Church of England and the rise of Puritanism 

a Condition of the church at the opening of the period : wealth ; 
judicial courts ; political power and influence 

b Rise of Protestantism: doctrines of Wyclif ; Luther's revolt; 
attitude of Henry 8 toward Luther's teachings 

c The break with Rome : divorce of Katherine ; dissolution of 
the monastaries ; translation of the Bible ; Act of Supremacy ; 
the church as left by Henry 8 

d The Protestant revolution under Edward 6 and his ministers 

e Catholic reaction : Mary's aims ; the Spanish Marriage ; re- 
union with Rome ; results of Mary's policy 

/ The moderation of Elizabeth : repeal of heresy laws ; the 
Thirty-nine Articles ; growth of Puritan ideas ; effects of the 
Armada and the wars in the Netherlands on religious senti- 
ment 

63 Trade and colonies 

a Trade: decay of gilds and trade organizations; rise of the 
middle class; debasement and restoration of coinage; com^ 
ing of artisans from the continent; gain of Flemish trade; 
laws protecting manufactures and regulating trade ; estab- 
lishment of navy 

b Colonial enterprise ; explorations of the Cabots, Drake and 
Raleigh; colonizing attempts of Gilbert and Raleigh; estab- 
lishment of trading companies 

64 Life in Tudor England 

a Social and economic changes: mode of living; the house, 
city and country ; inclosures ; increase of pauperism and its 
causes; laws for relief of the poor; introduction of firearms 

b Intellectual awakening: growth of the spirit of adventure 
and enterprise; the New Learning, its nature; Erasmus, 
More, Colet; establishment of new schools and colleges; the 
drama ; the theater ; Shakspere and Bacon 

Library and notebook topics 

A The revolt of the Netherlands 
B Why heretics were put to death 



HISTORY 231 

C Spanish power in the i6th century 

D Achievements of Elizabethan seamen 

E The execution of Mary Queen of Scots 

F The gild and the modern trade union 

G The earliest attempts of the English to colonize America 

H A day at Elizabeth's court 

XIII The Puritan revolution and Royalist reaction in England, 
1603-88 

Beginnings of England's importance in European and colonial 

affairs 

In taking up this period it should be made clear here that up to the time 
of her political revolution England had been a follower rather than a leader 
of Europe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the growing importance of 
the colonies, the overthrow of absolutism and the coming of William of 
Orange all combined to put England in a position of first importance in 
Europe. 

65 Division between kings and Parliament 

a Beginning of strife: change in national spirit about 1600; 
personality of James i ; divine right of kings ; rule of 
favorites 

b Increasing differences between Parliament and the Crown : 
characteristics of Charles i ; the Petition of Right ; tonnage 
and poundage ; Laud's policy and religious strife ; the disso- 
lution of 1629 and the emigration of Purit&ns ; monopohes; 
ship money and Hampden's resistance ; Wentworth's meas- 
ures ; Laud and the outbreak in Scotland ; the Short Parlia- 
ment 

c The Long Parliament : meeting of the Long Parliament ; 
impeachment and execution of Strafford ; measures Hmiting 
the power of the king; division of Parliament on religious 
questions ; intriguing of Charles for support ; the Grand Re- 
monstrance ; attempt to seize the five members 

66 Civil war and the Commonwealth 

a The first civil war: negotiations of the king 
b The second civil war : alhance of the king with the Scots ; 
the Battle of Preston ; Pride's Purge ; trial and execution of 
the king 
c The Commonwealth : the Rump Parliament, conquest of 
Scotland and Ireland; Cromwell as Lord Protector; con- 
stitutional experiment ; fall of the Commonwealth 



232 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

67 Restoration and revolution 

a Political conditions : character and policy of the king. Par- 
liament and taxation ; the royal dispensing power 

b Charles 2 and Louis 14: aims of the French king; war be- 
tween England and Holland; the secret Treaty of Dover; 
the Declaration of Indulgence; the Test Act; the Exclusion 
Bill; Whigs and Tories 

c Overthrow of the Stuarts : national fear of a Catholic despot- 
ism ; assertion of dispensing power by the king; Catholics in 
office ; a standing army 

d William of Orange : position and character of William ; the 
summons to England; flight of James 2; Parliament and the 
succession 

e Results of the Revolution ; Bill of Rights ; Act of Toleration ; 
Act of Settlement 

68 England and the continent 

a James i ; foreign policy of James i ; the Thirty Years War 
b Cromwell : Navigation Act ; war with Holland ; war with 

Spain; England's influence in Europe during Cromwell's 

protectorate 
c The restored Stuarts : wars between England and Holland ; 

secret alliance of Charles 2 and Louis 14; the designs of 

Louis 14 

69 Ireland 

Ireland reconquered: condition of Ireland in 1600; Went- 
worth ; rebellion of 1641 ; conquest by Cromwell; the Crom- 
wellian settlement 

70 Commerce and colonies 

a Colonies in America : colonies founded in America during 
the Stuart period ; influence on the American colonies of the 
civil and religious dissensions of the mother country; the 
navigation laws ; war with Spain, Jamaica ; war with Hol- 
land, the New Netherlands 

b Commerce : trading posts in India ; some of the principal 
articles of commerce in the 17th century 

71 Religious intolerance and sectarianism 

An age of religious intolerance : religious parties of the 
period ; laws to establish conformity ; the King James ver- 
sion; effects of the Gunpowder plot on the position of the 



HISTORY 



233 



Catholics in England; Laud and his policy; attitude of 
Scotland toward the use of the prayer book ; the church 
question in Parliament; religious settlement of the Restora- 
tion ; royal tolerance ; national intolerance ; religious condi- 
tions at the close of the period 

72 Life and literature 

a Life: manner of life, dress and amusements of CavaHer and 

Roundhead 
b Literature : establishment of the Royal Society of London 

and its significance ; King James version and its influence on 

the English language ; the first newspapers ; Milton ; Bun- 

yan ; Newton; Ilarvey 

XIV Colonial England, 1497-1760 

73 Explorations and early settlements before Jamestown, 1497- 

1607 
a The Cabots and North America 
b Backwardness of England in getting a footing in America 

contrasted with the progressiveness of Spain and France 
c Why England was last in the field 
d English colonization contrasted with Spanish and French 

colonization as regards: objects; regions settled; reasons for 

success 

Map li'ork 

Map, showing in different colors or by different markings, 
Spanish, French, Dutch, Swedish and English spheres of 
influence in America 

74 Virginia, a typical southern colony 

a New motives and methods of colonization in 17th century 
b Reasons for early failures in \"irginia, 1607-19 
c Reasons for greater success, 1619-24, under leadership of 
Sandys and Southampton, and the party opposed to abso- 
lutism 
d Labor question : early troubles ; indented white servants and 

negro slaves 
e Development of representative government and spirit of 
independence, after annulling of charter, 1624. (i) Self- 
government during Puritan supremacy in England. (2) 
Bacon's Rebellion : causes, changes proposed, results. 



234 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

"(3) Quarrels between assemblies and governors; the sub- 
jects, the significance 
/ Government of Virginia, a typical royal colony 

Map work 

a Physical features 

b Counties, with dates, illustrating westward movement 

Library and notebook topics 

A John Smith as adventurer, governor and historian 
B Education, including William and Mary College. Governor Ber- 
keley's ideas 
C Political and economic effects of the cultivation of tobacco 
D Virginia life in i8th century 

75 Maryland, the Carolinas and Georgia 

a Government of Maryland, a typical proprietary colony 
h Development of representative government in Maryland 
c Religious toleration in Maryland, (i) Provision of charter 
and desire of Lord Baltimore. (2) The Toleration Act of 
1649 
d Carolinas and Georgia, the southern frontier colonies ; inde- 
pendent spirit in the Carolinas; frontier life of North Caro- 
lina; life in South Carolina; Georgia; its twofold object, 
its services, its characteristics 

76 Beginnings of colonization of New England. Character and 

aims of Puritans, Pilgrims and Plymouth colony 

a Origin and aims of English Puritans (before 1608) ; how 
the Separatists around Scrooby became Pilgrims ; why the 
Pilgrims left Holland ; Mayflower Compact ; landing and 
settling at Plymouth ; early government and life 
yy Early Massachusetts 

A typical New England colony, 1624-50. Objects (religious, 
political, economic.) Character of government and life 

a Causes and character of the Puritan exodus to Massachu- 
setts in 1630 {see 65 &) 

b Founding of Massachusetts : charter, how obtained, por- 
visions; Cambridge agreement, transfer; settlement of Bos- 
ton and adjoining towns 

c Rise of representative government in Massachusetts, 163 1- 

50 
d The threefold danger, 1634-36 
e Local government in Massachusetts, its origin and form, 

town meeting, and selectmen 



HISTORY 235 

/ Education, morals and religion in Massachusetts in 17th 
century 

78 New England, 1636-1760 

Typical development of American institutions 

a Founding of Providenc and Rhode Island, Connecticut, 
New Hampshire and Maine 

b The New England Confederation, 1643; articles, adminis- 
tration, services 

c Overthrow of the Massachusetts charter 

d The tyranny of Andros and the Revolution of 1689 

e Independent attitude of Massachusetts toward English gov- 
ernment, 1630-1760 

/ Provincial New England, 1692-1760: contests with royal 
governors ; paper money ; commerce ; Harvard and Yale ; the 
" Great Awakening " ; literature 

g Colonial governments of New England 

h Social and economic conditions in New England in 1760 
(including education) 

Library and notebook topic 

The Toleration Act of 1649. Compare its provisions with the pro- 
visions in the Constitution of New York State and those in the 
Constitution of the United States relating to religious freedom, 

79 New York 

a Under the Dutch, (i) Political, religious and industrial 
ideas of the Dutch in Holland. (2) Holland and commer- 
cial enterprise ; voyages of Hudson and the founding of 
trading posts ; the fur trade and friendship with the Indians. 
. (3) The West India Company and the patroons. (4) 
Growth of the colony and the demand for self-government. 
(5) The struggle for self-government: why the people did 
not oppose capitulation to the English 

b Under the English, (i) Meaning of the surrender (1664). 
(2) English neglect of schools. (3) Slow progress toward 
self-government: Governor Nichols and the Duke's Laws 
1665; the first assembly; the Charter of Liberties, 1683; de- 
struction of the representative assembly ; the Revolution of 
1688 and Leisler's rule ; representative government reestab- 
lished under William and Mary. (4) The French and 
Indian Wars, 1688-1763. (5) Social, educational, religious 
and economic conditions, 1700-60 



236 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Library and notebook topics 

A Old Dutch customs in New Netherland 

B Reasons for greater success of England than of Holland as .a 

colonizing nation 
C The Iroquois Confederacy 
D New York in the Intercolonial Wars 
E Indian trails and modern routes of transportation 
F French, German and Scotch settlements in New York 
G Strategic points in colonial New York 
H The Zenger trial 
/ The importance of Albany in colonial times 

80 Pennsylvania, "A Quaker experiment in government." New- 

Jersey and Delaware 

a Colonial New Jersey: character of the people 

b The principles of the " Friends," or Quakers : political, moral 
religious 

c Life and character of William Penn; the founding of Phila- 
delphia 

d The Quaker Constitution 

e The Quaker government, 1682-1756. ( i) Religious and civil 
liberty. (2) Relations with the Indians. (3) Quaker atti- 
tude toward war. (4) Extent to which Quakers controlled 
the government. (5) Slavery 

/ Social and economic conditions in Pennsylvania, 1760 (or 
1765) 

Library and notebook topics 

A Quaker organizations and discipline 

B A comparison between the Quaker policy toward the Indians in 

Pennsylvania, 1682-1756, and the Puritan policy in New England 

in 1630-76 
C The Quakers' attitude toward slavery 

XV The ascendancy of France and the age of Louis 14 

81 Richelieu and the establishment of the absolute monarchy 

a Richelieu : rise to power ; character ; aims ; his relations with 

Louis 13 
b Richelieu and the Huguenots 
c Richelieu and the nobles : how he destroyed their power and 

strengthened the monarchy ; the intendants 
d Richelieu and the Thirty Years War 



HISTORY 237 

e Mazarin : causes of his unpopularity ; revolt of the nobles 
and lawyers ; how he carried out Richelieu's work ; foreign 
policy ; what is meant by an " absolute monarchy " 

82 Louis 14 (1O61-1715) and his court 

a Louis the man: early education and training; character, 
abilities, deficiencies and aims 

h Louis 14 the king ; idea of government and of a king's power ; 
what he expected of the nobles ; new royal palaces ; occupa- 
tions and amusements at Versailles 

c Art and literature in the age of Louis 14; effect of Louis's 
paternalism 

Library and notebook topics 

A Costumes in the age of Louis 14 

B Louis 14's morning reception and toilet 

83 Tlie people ; Colbert and his reforms 

a The people : their burdensome taxes ; corruption of officials 
b Colbert : his services to Mazarin ; how he tried to lighten the 
burdens of the people ; how he encouraged industries, com- 
merce, and colonization 
c Colbert and Louis 14: differences in their aims 
d The revocation of the Edict of Nantes; its effect on the 
prosperity and foreign relations of France 

84 Louis 14's wars 

a War against the Dutch, 1670-78 

h War of League of Augsburg, 1689-97 

c The War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-13: cause; forma- 
tion of the ( irand Alliance ; Marlborough's campaigns in the 
Netherlands and on the Danube; capture of Gibraltar; Queen 
Anne's War in America ; terms of the peace of Utrecht 

d France at the close of Louis 14's reign : condition of the 
French people at the close of the wars; how Louis 14's reign 
prepared the way for the French Revolution 



238 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



MODERN HISTORY, PART H 




I Introduction to modern 
history (the i8th, 19th 
and 20th centuries) 



II The balance of power in 
Europe and struggle for 
colonial supremacy 



III The rise of Russia and 
Prussia: the age of Fred- 
erick the Great 



IV French Revolution 
1789-95 



V Napoleon Bonaparte 
and the Napoleonic 
Wars 



VI The Congress of Vienna 
and the policy of reac- 
tion and repression 



1 Discoveries and colonization 

2 The Church; the Protestant revolt; 

the Jesuits 

3 The manorial system 

4 The gild 

5 Feudalism 

6 The absolutism of Louis 14 

7 England's preparation for the 

struggle 

8 The exhaustion of France 

9 Conflicts in Europe and in India 

10 Conflicts between French and Eng 

lish colonies in America 

1 1 Formation of the Russian empire, 

Peter the Great 

12 Expansion of Russia in the i8th cen 

tury 

13 Beginnings of the Prussian state 

14 Frederick the Great, 1740-86 

15 Frederick the Great in peace 

16 Abuses and evils of the Old Regime 

17 Growth of revolutionary spirit be 

fore 1789 

18 Louis 16 (1774-93) and attempts at 

reform 

19 The beginnings of the French Revo 

lution and the destruction of the 
Old Regime 

20 The attempt to make a constitu- 

tion, 1789-91 

21 The failure of the constitution and 

the fall of the monarchy, 1791-92 

22 The first French republic and the war 

against Europe, 1792-93 

23 The Reign of Terror, 1793-94 

24 France in 1795 

25 General Bonaparte in Italy and 

Egypt, 1796-99 

26 Bonaparte as consul, 1799- 1804 

27 Napoleonic Empire, 1804 

28 Napoleon's campaigns from Auster- 

litz to Tilsit, 1805-7 

29 The national uprisings against Na- 

poleon, 1808-12 

30 The downfall of Napoleon 

31 Napoleon's constructive work 

32 The Congress, 18 14-15 

33 Greek War for Independence, 1821- 

29 and other movements in south- 
ern Europe 

34 The Paris Revolution of 1830 



HISTORY 



239 



MODERN HISTORY, PART II {contimmi) 




VII The Industrial revo- • 
lution and the economic 
development of Euro- 
pean countries 



VIII Reform movements in 
England and her posses- 
sions 



IX Revolutionary move- 
ments of 1848 



X Wars for national unity 



XI France under the Sec- 
ond Empire and the Third 
Republic 

XII The Empire of Ger- 
many 

XIII Austria-Hungary 
since 1848 



35 



36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

^7 
48 

49 
50 
51 

52 
( 53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 

62 



XIV England since 1848 



XV The Russian empire in 
in the 19th century 

XVI The Near Eastern 
Question 



63 
64 

65 

f 66 
67 

68 

69 
70 
71 

I 72 
73 

74 
i75 
176 



The stationary state of industry from 
the decline of Roman civilization 
to the modern age 

Coal, steam, iron 

Beginnings of steam power 

Spinning and weaving machinery 

The cotton gin; Eli Whitney 

Improvements in transportation 

The factory system 

Industrial combinations 

A new power, electricity 

Banks, banking and credit 

Transformation of commerce 

The influence of the industrial revo 
lution 

The Old Regime in England 

Parliamentary reform 

The Irish question 

Canada: the Rebellion of 1837 

Taxation and trade 

Industrial progress and reforms 

The preparations for revolution 

France 

Italy 

Germany 

Austria 

Summary of results 

The unification of Italy 

The unification of Germa'ny 

The coup d'etat of President Napoleon 
and the Second Empire 

The Franco-Prussian War and the 

Third Republic 

The government of France today 

The ascendancy of Prussia 

The government of Germany of to 
day 

The humiliation of Austria 

The government of Austria-Hungary 
of today 

Political and social reforms and in- 
dustrial decline 

The government 

The colonies and their government 

Literature 

Social conditions 

The development of Russia in the 
19th century 

The present government of Russia 

Turkey and the Eastern Question 

The Turkish Revolution of 1909 



:240 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



MODERN HISTORY, PART II (concluded) 









4-) 


So 


General 


survey of the field 


^1 

" d 

ft 






77 Review of early European explora- 








tions 








78 England's East India Company 


\' 






79 The Australasian colonies 


r 






80 France in Asia 


\ 


7 


XVII Europe in Asia 


81 Holland in Java 

82 Russia in northern Asia 

83 China and the European invasion 

84 Japan and the European invasion 

85 Contrast between the governments of 

Japan and China 


/; 






■ 86 The Dark Continent 


v 






87 The French in Northern Africa 


5 


XVIII Europe in Africa 


88 The English in Africa 

89 Other European nations in Africa 
^ 90 The general partition of Africa 

91 European control; the gaining of 
independence 








92 Spain's colonies 


h 


3 


XIX North and South 


93 Brazil 




America 


94 Industrial advance of Latin Amer- 

ica and the relations of the United 
States to her southern neighbors 

95 Alliances of European powers 

96 Armaments of Europe 




5 


XX Contemporary Europe • 


97 Changing social conditions 

98 Governments 

99 Transportation and communication 




lO 




General summary and review 


10 



OUTLINE OF MODERN HISTORY, PART II 

Introduction to part 2, modern history, the i8th, 19th and 20th 
centuries 

Revieiv 

1 Discoveries and colonization [see Modern history, pt I, sec- 

tions 49, 50, 63, 70, 73-78. 83] 

2 The Church, the Protestant revoh; the Jesuits [see Modern 

history, pt I, sections 53-59] 

3 The manorial system [see Modern history, pt I, sections 37- 

38] 

4 The gilds [see Modern history, pt I, sections 37-38] 

5 Feudalism [see Modern history, pt I, sections 19, 32] 

6 The absohitism of Louis 14, and his ambitions [see Modern 

history, pt I, sections 81-84] 



HISTORY 241 

II The balance of power in Europe and struggle for colonial 
supremacy 

7 England's preparation for the struggle : the establishment of 

constitutional monarchy as the result of the Revolution of 
1688 

a Constitutional gains : Mutiny Act ; Toleration Act ; Bill of 
Rights; Act of Settlement; growth and organization of po- 
litical parties; development of the Cabinet 

b Closer union with Scotland and Ireland 

(i) Acceptance of William and Mary by Scotch Presby- 
terians; the legislative union of 1707 
(2) The subjugation of Ireland: Battle of the Boyne ; the 
Treaty of Limerick and how it was disregarded 

8 The exhaustion of France 

Financial stress caused by the wars and extravagance of Louis 
14; by the corruption under Louis 15 

9 Conflicts in Europe and in India 

a Rivalry of William 3 and Louis 14: French support of the 

Stuarts ; league against Louis ; La Hogue ; the war in 

America 
b The War of the Spanish Succession: the causes; the allies; 

Marlborough and his companions ; Gibraltar, Acadia, and 

Hudson Bay ; Treaty of Utrecht 
c The War of the Austrian Succession : causes ; allies ; Treaty 

of Aix la Chapelle 
d War continued in the colonies 

( 1 ) The struggle in India ; Clive 

(2) In America, rivalry for the Ohio valley 

e The Seven Years War, 1755-63: causes; allies; Pitt's ad- 
ministration ; British successes ; Treaty of Paris 

10 The conflict between the French and English in the colonies 

in America 
a Political, social and economic development of the colonies, 
1700-50 

( 1 ) Political development : taxation ; elections ; free speech ; 
defense of charters; attempts at union, specially in i6go and 

1754 

(2) Economic conditions: industries; artificial and natural 
restrictions 

(3) Social development: population — immigration, expan- 
sion, increase; religion (specially "Great Awakening"); 
education ; literature : newspapers 



242 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Struggle between France and England for North America, 
I 689-1 763 
(i) French explorations and settlements in the St Lawrence 
and Mississippi valleys, 1604-1718: Port Royal in Acadia, 
1604; Champlain at Quebec, 1608; La Salle and the Mis- 
sissippi, 1682 ; settlement of Louisiana, 1699 ; New Orleans, 
1718 

(2) Contrast between French and English methods of col- 
onization in North America : political, religious, social, 
economic. The " Second Hundred Years War between 
England and France," 1689-1815: its world-wide import- 
ance; the chief events in America to 1748 

(3) Strength and weakness of the French and of the Eng- 
lish in 1754. (a) In Europe: military resources; attitude 
of each of the mother countries toward its colonies, (b) 
In America : geographic conditions ; population ; military 
resources ; political, social, economic conditions 

(4) Expulsion of the French, 1754-63, the " French and In- 
dian War." (a) Theater of V\far; lines of invasion, (b) 
Causes and beginnings, (c) Early failures of the Eng- 
lish, 1754-57. (d) New plans and leaders, and conquest 
of Canada, 1757-60: Pitt; Wolfe; Quebec, (e) Terms 
of peace; geographic and political results of war to Eng- 
land, France, America, India 

Map work 

a Possessions of France, England and Spain in North 

America in 1756; English and Spanish possession in North 

America in 1763 
b Theater of war : showing river valleys, lines of invasions, 

forts, battles 

Library and notebook topics 

A Were the English justified in: (i) the attempt to expel the 

Acadians; (2) the method used? 
B Outline of the political and economic development in New York 

State, 1700-50. Use, if available, the topics and subtopics in loa, 

so as to indicate what progress was made in these lines in the 

State. 
C An outline of the social and economic development of the pupil's 

own town : churches, schools, industries, factories etc. 
D Battle of the Plains of Abraham and capture of Quebec 
E " The means, the character, and the spirit of the two combatants 

fin the French and Indian War], and why one succeeded where 

the other was defeated." 



HISTORY 243 

III The rise of Russia and Prussia. The age of Frederick the 
Great 

11 The formation of the Russian empire; Peter the Great 

a Russia before Peter the Great; the Slavic races and charac- 
teristics ; oriental influences on Russian character and de- 
velopment ; Ivan the Terrible ; social and political conditions 
of Russia at the accession of Peter 

b Peter the Great, 1689-1725: struggle for the throne; travels, 
ambitions, and difficulties ; Peter's western friends ; his 
character 

c Internal reforms of Peter the Great: army, navy; dress and 
customs ; church ; the new capital 

12 The expansion of Russia in the i8th century 

a In the Baltic : importance of the Baltic sea ; its special value 
to Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Prussia, Russia; Charles 12 
of Sweden ; his character and ambitions ; his struggle with 
Peter the Great; battles of Narva and Poltava; Charles 12's 
mad career and death ; decline of Sweden ; Russia's foothold 
on the Baltic ; St Petersburg 

b In Turkey and on the Black sea : Peter's gain and loss of 
Azov ; death of Peter the Great ; his importance in Russian 
history; Catherine 2, 1762-96; her wars with Turkey and 
conquest of the north shore of the Black sea 

c In Poland : internal disorders and weakness of Poland ; 
Catherine 2's share in the three partitions of Poland, 1772, 

1793' 1795 
d In Siberia : early explorations and settlements 

Sl^ecial map work 

Sketch map showing the gains in territory made by Russia 
in the i8th century 

13 The beginnings of the I russian state, 1640-1740 

a The Hohenzollerns before 1640: how they acquired their 
three territories (Brandenburg, Prussia, Cleves) ; geographic 
position of these territories and its future significance ; the 
task of the Hohenzollerns 

b Frederick William, the " Great Elector," 1640-88: character; 
gains of territory by Treaty of Westphalia ; his position in 
his own lands and in Europe 

c How the Elector of Brandenburg acquired the title of '' King 
in Prussia," 1701 
16 



244 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d Frederick William i, 1713-40: how he made Prussia a mili- 
tary state and a prosperous country ; his foreign policy ; the 
" tobacco parliament '' ; good and bad side of his character 

14 Frederick the Great, 1740-86 

a The youth of Frederick the Great 

b The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-48: death of Em- 
peror Charles 6 and Frederick William i in 1740; the Prag- 
matic Sanction ; Maria Theresa and her difficulties ; Fred- 
erick the Great and his ambitions ; his invasion of Silesia ; 
interests of France and England; results of the war 

c The interval of peace : reforms in Prussia and Austria ; Maria 
Theresa's secret alliances and their purpose ; Frederick's 
perilous position ; his change of policy and alliance with 
■ England 

d The Seven Years War, 1756-63: how Frederick defended 
Silesia; his occupation of Saxony; Frederick's critical posi- 
tion in the last years of the war ; change in Russia's policy ; 
efifect of the war on rivalry between Prussia and Austria 

e Frederick's later years : his share in the first partition of 
Poland; Frederick's character and death, 1786 

Special map zvork 

Sketch map showing the extent of Prussia's territory at the 
death of Frederick the Great 

15 Frederick the Great in time of peace 

a Personal appearance ; habits and popularity of " Father 
Fritz " 

h Frederick as musician, author and philosopher; life at Sans 
Souci ; Voltaire's visits and quarrels 

c Fredrick's measures for the welfare of his people 

d Frederick a typical " enlightened despot " : his idea of a 
ruler's duty ; comparison of Frederick with Joseph 2 and 
Catherine 2 ; the advantages and disadvantages of govern- 
ment by " enlightened despots " 

e Frederick's place in history : his importance in Prussian and 
in German history ; Frederick a national hero 

/ German literature in the age of Frederick the Great 

IV French Revolution, 1789-95 

16 Abuses and evils of the Old Regime 

a Inherent weaknesses of an absolute monarchy ; incapacity, 
folly and indifference of Louis 15; reckless extravagance; 
lettres de cachet; general decline of France in the i8th 
century 



HISTORY 



245 



b Survival of feudal abuses: lack of uniform laws and admin- 
istration ; feudal privileges of nobility and higher clergy 
without corresponding duties ; absenteeism 

c Political and social evils: taxation; taille and gahelle ; op- 
pression of government officials 

d Economic evils : lack of roads, of freedom of work, and of 
commerce ; poverty and hardships of the peasants and parish 
priests 

Library and notebook topics 

A Society and life in Paris before 1789 
B The army and its officers before 1789 
C Decline of respect and love of the people toward the king during 

reign of Louis 15 
D Origin and justification of the system of privilege 
E John Law and the Mississippi Bubble 

17 Growth of a revolutionary spirit before 1789 

a The Parlements of the i8th century; how they called atten- 
tion to the existing evils and proposed " fundamental laws " 

b Influence of the writers : Voltaire's attack on the church ; 
Rousseau's Social Contract; Montesquieu's Spirit of the 
Laws; the Encyclopedists; the new school of economists 

c The efifect of the American Revolution 

d How the people came to realize the evils of the Old Regime; 
the desire for liberty, equality and fraternity 

Library and notebook topics 

A Influence of England on the growth of revolutionary ideas in 

France 
B Admiration of the French for Benjamin Franklin 
C Expulsion of the Jesuits from France 
D What people in England thought of revolution in France 

iS Louis 16 (1774-93) and attempts at reform 
a Louis i6's character; comparison with his grandfather; his 

marriage with Marie Antoinette 
b Turgot's ideas and reforms (1774-76) ; why his reforms 

were opposed by every class of society ; Turgot's dismissal 
c Attempted reforms of Necker and Calonne ; the Assembly of 

Notables. 1787 
d Impossibility of financial reform ; growing demand for a 

meeting of the Estates-General 
19 The beginning of the Revolution and destruction of the Old 

Regime, 1789 



246 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

a The Estates-General of 1789: Sieyes's pamphlet, public 
opinion, and the cahiers ; meeting of the Estates-General at 
Versailles, May 5, 1789; how should it vote ; the " National 
Assembly" and ''Tennis Court Oath'" (June 20) 

h Fall of the Bastile (July 14) : its real and legendary impor- 
tance 

c Decrees of Aug. 4; establishment of a national guard 

20 The attempt to make a constitution, 1789-91 

a The " Declaration of the Rights of Man," and the division of 
France into departments 

h Position of the King: the veto question; scarcity of bread; 
" To Versailles," Oct. 5 

c Financial measures — assi gnats and confiscation of church 
property ; civil constitution of the clergy and the " non- 
jurors " ; emigration of the nobles 

d The flight to Varennes (June 20, 1791), and its conse- 
quences ; unpopularity of Marie Antoinette 

21 The failure of the constitution and fall of the monarchy, 

1791-92 

a The Legislative Assembly (Oct. i, 1791-Sept. 20, 1792) : 
hostility of Jacobin and Girondist parties ; decline of the 
assignats; opposition of the clergy; weakness of the king; 
continued emigration of nobles 

b Interference of Europe in the French Revolution: the 
Declaration of Pillnitz ; its effect on feeling in France ; 
decree against the emigres; declaration of war against Aus- 
tria ; decree of " the country in danger " ; the " Federates " 
of July 14, 1792, and the Marseillaise : manifesto of the Duke 
of Brunswick 

c Insurrection of Aug. 10 and its results 

22 The first French republic and the war against Europe, 1792- 

93 
a The advance of the invaders : feeling in Paris ; Marat and the 

newspapers ; the September massacres ; the cannonade of 

Valmy, Sept. 20, 1792 
h Establishment of the Republic : meeting of the National 

Convention ; the three parties and the leaders ; the monarchy ; 

proclamation of the Republic and the *' Year i " ; trial and 

execution of the king 
c The spread of the Revolution ; victories and conquests of the 

"volunteers of 1792"; how the revolutionary ideas spread 

into other countries ; how they were checked ; Dumouriez 



HISTORY 



247 



d The Committee of Public Safety and expulsion of the 
Girondists (June 2, 1793) 

Library and notebook topics 

A Cause of the September massacres 

B Trial and execution of Louis 16 

C Why the French people hated Marie Antoinette 

22, The Reign of Terror, 1793-94 

a Opposition to the Revolution : peasants in Brittany and 
La Vendee ; alliance with England ; Charlotte Corday 

b The guillotine and its victims 

c The Reign of Terror : the revolutionary calendar and wor- 
ship of Reason; the three factions of the Mountain (Robes- 
pierre, Hebert, Danton) ; character and rule of Robespierre; 
the festival of the Supreme Being 

d The fall of Robespierre, July 2y, 1794: reaction after the 
Reign of Terror 

Library and notebook topics 
A Madame Roland 
B Charlotte Corday 
C The revolutionary calendar 

V Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars, 1 795-1815 

24 France in 1795 

a France and Europe : successes of the French against Eng- 
lish, emigres, and Dutch (the " Batavian republic "") ; peace 
with Spain and Prussia, 1795 

b Beneficial progress achieved in France during six years of 
revolution 

c The Constitution of 1795 or the " Year 3 " : the '' Directory " ; 
unpopularity of the Convention ; Bonaparte's " whiff of grape 
shot " 

d Napoleon Bonaparte's early life and opportunity: nationality; 
education ; boyish ambitions and occupations ; his part in the 
siege of Toulon ; marriage ; personal appearance and habits ; 
his opportuntiy in 1795 

25 General Bonaparte in Italy and Egypt, 1796-99 

a Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy, 1796-97: why Bonaparte 
was given the command ; how he encouraged his soldiers ; 
how the French army differed from the Austrian and Sar- 
dinian armies; battles of Lodi and Areola; siege of Mantua; 



248 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

fate of Venice; Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797; the Cisalpine 
Republic; Bonaparte's reception on his return to Paris 
b The Egyptian expedition : its purposes and the causes of its 
failure ; how it illustrates Bonaparte's character and plans 

Library and notebook topics 

A Bonaparte's treatment of the conquered Italians 
B Bonaparte's plans of conquest in the Orient 

26 Bonaparte as consul, 1 799-1804 

a The coup d'etat of 1799 ( i8th Brumaire) ; what happened in 
France while Bonaparte was in Egypt ; his reception in Paris 
on his return ; the coup d'etat ; Constitution of the Consulate ; 
how the First Consul kept the real power in his own hands 

b Bonaparte's second campaign in Italy, 1800-1 : battle of 
Marengo ; Moreau at Hohenlinden ; peace with Austria at 
Luneville (1801) and with England at Amiens (1802) 

c The interval of peace (1801-3) and reconstruction of French 
institutions : the Concordat ; decrees in favor of emigrant 
nobles; renewal of old habits and society; the Code Napoleon 
and its importance ; schools, scholars, and the Legion of 
Honor; Bonaparte's colonial projects; Louisiana 

Library and notebook topics 

A Bonaparte's reconstruction of Germany 

B How the United States secured Louisiana 

C Bonaparte's idea of good society 

D The effect of Napoleon's continental system on the United States 

27 The Napoleonic Empire, 1804 

a Royalist plots against Bonaparte; the execution of the Due 

d'Enghien and its effect on Europe 
b Restoration of the Empire: Napoleon i the "successor of 

Charlemagne " ; how old Europe regarded the new emperor 
c Renewal of war: Malta; occupation of Hanover; coast 

blockade ; changes in the dependent kingdoms ; preparations 

for the invasion of England ; Napoleon's weakness on the 

ocean ; the battle of Trafalgar, 1805 

28 Napoleon's campaigns from Austerlitz to Tilsit, 1805-7 

a Campaign against Austria, 1805: capitulation of Ulm; 

battle of Austerlitz ; end of the Holy Roman Empire ; 

Francis 2, " Emperor of Austria " ; the Confederation of the 

Rhine 
b Campaign against Prussia, 1806: battle of Jena 



HISTORY 



249 



c Campaign against Russia, 1807: battle of Eylau ; terms of 

the Treaty of Tilsit 
d Napoleon's " continental system " : purpose ; difficulty in 

execution ; its effect on the European powers 

29 The national uprisings against Napoleon, 1808-12 

a The Spanish revolt, 1808-9: importance of Spain and Por- 
tugal to Napoleon's plans ; Joseph's troubles ; Napoleon in 
Spain : how the opposition to Napoleon in Spain differed 
from previous opposition 

h The Austrian revolt, 1809: Austria's hopes; battle of Wag- 
ram ; Austria's humiliation ; Napoleon's second marriage ; his 
annexations; position in Europe in 1810; elements of weak- 
ness in his empire 

c Napoleon's invasion of Russia, 1812; purpose, causes of 
failure ; its effect on Napoleon's power 

d The Prussian rising, 1813: social and military reforms in 
Prussia ; Frederick William 3's proclamations ; beginning of 
the " War of Liberation " 

Map tvork 

Sketch map of Europe showing Napoleon's Empire and de- 
pendent states in 1810 

30 The downfall of Napoleon, 1813-15 

a Leipzig, 1813: importance of this battle for Napoleon and 
for Europe 

b Elba, 1814: invasion of France by the allies; exhaustion of 
France ; desertions from Napoleon ; Napoleon's abdication ; 
the Congress of V-ienna ; how Napoleon lived at Elba; the 
first restoration; the charter of 1814; opposition to the Bour- 
bons 

c Waterloo, 181 5 : Napoleon's return and reception ; the " Hun- 
dred Days " ; the army of Napoleon ; the "Acte Additionel " ; 
the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1915 ; Napoleon's second 
abdication ; the treaties of Paris ; the second restoration 

d St Helena 181 5-21 : how Napoleon passed the days of his 
exile ; his character ; his place in history 

Library and notebook topics 

A How far was Napoleon favored by circumstances? 

B Napoleon's writings 

C What in his career did Napoleon regret? 

D Napoleon's hold on his soldiers 



250 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

31 Napoleon's constructive work 
a The " Code Napoleon " 

b The destruction of feudalism as a political system in Italy 
and Germany 

VI The Congress of Vienna and the policy of reaction and 
repression 

32 The Congress of Vienna ; not really a congress ; Metternich's 

system of absolutism 

a Forces in the development of Europe in the 19th century: 
nationality ; popular sovereignty and constitutional govern- 
ment ; equality ; personal liberty ; the press ; industrial and 
commercial progress ; colonial expansion ; European co.i- 
gresses 

h The Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 : principle of legitimacy; 
the absolute monarchies; territorial status of Europe; the 
opposing parties ; Talleyrand ; territorial problems and their 
settlement ; constitutional arrangements ; failure of the con- 
gress to take account of the new forces in the 19th century 

c Metternich's system of absolutism, 1815-48: aims of Metter- 
nich , and Czar Alexander ; the Holy Alliance ; struggles 
against absolutism in Spain, Germany and Italy : measures 
against the German students ; revolutions put down by in- 
tervention 

Map work 

Sketch map of Europe in 181 5 showing the territorial set- 
tlements of the Congress of Vienna 

Library and notebook topics 

A England's attitude toward the policy of Metternich 
B The origin of the Monroe Doctrine 

33 Greek war for Independence, 1821-29 
a Attitude of governments toward it 

b Popular sentiment in its favor 

In the 19th century the nations of Europe have come into closer contact 
with each other, and their history becomes more and more interwoven ; this 
is partly the result of the introduction of railroads, steam vessels, and mag- 
netic telegraph, and the daily newspaper. 

34 The Paris Revolution of 183b 

a France after the restoration of the Bourbons : comparison 
of France in 1789 and in 1815; the Charter; Louis 18; 
Charles 10; reactionary measures; their nature 



HISTORY 251 

b The July Revolution in Paris, 1830; revision of the charter; 
the opposing parties ; democracy and the press ; Louis 
Philippe " King of the French " ; his character and reign ; 
effect of the revolution on Belgium and Polland ; the min- 
istry of Guizot ; the formation of the Catholic and Socialist 
parties 

VII Industrial evolution and the economic development of 
European countries 

35 The stationary state of industry from the decline of Roman 
civilization to the modern age 

36 Coal, steam, iron ; their interdependence 

37 Beginnings of steam power ; James Watt 

38 Spinning and weaving machinery 
a Hargreaves ; Arkwright 

b Crompton ; Cartwright 

39 The cotton gin — Eli Whitney 

40 Improvements in transportation and communication 
a Improved roads and canals : 

Macadam; Telford; Brindley 
b The locomotive — George Stephenson 
c The steamhoat - — Robert Fulton 
d The telegraph and telephone — Morse ; Bell 
e The wireless message — Marconi 

41 The factory system 

a Change from the domestic system 
b The classes ; capitalists and laborers 

42 Industrial combinations 

a Trusts and combinations of capitalists 
b Labor unions 

43 The development of a new power — electricity 
a Its advantages over steam 

b Edison 

44 The growth of banks, banking and credit 

a Their influence on commerce and industry 

b Their relation to stock and produce exchanges 

c Financial crises — principal causes 

45 The transformation of commerce — nature and causes; enor- 

mous increase in the exchange of products 

46 The influence of the industrial revolution in the various 

countries of Europe 
a Population — its increase and vigor 



252 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Redistribution of population — city and country 

c Society, the growth of class feeling 

d Demand for suffrage ; legislation for laborers 

Library and notebook topics 

A-F The industrial revolution in England; in France; in Germany; 

in Italy; in Russia; in the minor countries of Europe 
G The efifect of machinery on the organization of industry 
H The effect of machinery on the distribution of the population and 

the growth of cities : compare percentage changes in some two 

countries 
/ How the modern labor union differs from the medieval gild 
K Changes in housing, homes and home life due to the industrial 

revolution 
L The industrial revolution and women wage-earners 

VIII Reform movements in England and her possessions 

47 The Old Regime in England 

a Political reforms in England checked by the excesses of the 

French Revolution 
b The government in the hands of the few 
c Industrial troubles; condition of the laboring classes 
d The two great parties, Whig and Tory ; Catholic Emancipa- 
tion 

48 Parliamentary reform 

a The " rotten burroughs " : reforms demanded after the 

American Revolution; the contest of 1832; results 
b The Chartist demands and their treatment 

49 The Irish question 

a Troubles over the Union 
b The famine 1845-49 

50 Canada: political conditions there; the Rebellion of 1837 

51 Taxation and trade 

a The Corn Laws : conflicting views of Peel and Cobden ; re- 
peal of the Corn Laws 

b The Navigation Law : repeal of the Navigation Law ; Eng- 
lish imports and exports ; effect of the free trade policy on 
the development of English trade 

c Methods of taxation 

52 Industrial progress 

a Canals ; roads ; railroads ; steamship lines ; cheap postage ; 

telegraph lines 
b Trade unions 
c Manufacturing centers 



HISTORY 253 

Map work 

Map showing the manufacturing and commercial cities of 
the British Isles 

Library and notebook topics 

A Parliament before the reform of 1832 
B How the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed 
C The Chartist movement 

IX The revolutionary movements of 1848 

53 The preparations for revolution 

The aim : to accomplish the liberalism which Metternich had 
suppressed after 181 5 

54 France: the beginner of the movement 

a The February revolution in Paris 1848; dissatisfaction with 

Louis Philippe and the ministry of Guizot 
b The socialists and Louis Blanc ; what the socialists wanted ; 

what the people of France wanted 
c The provisional government ; universal suffrage 
d The Constituent Assembly 
e Louis Napoleon, his character and ambitions ; reasons for 

his popularity ; the Second Republic 

55 Italy 

a Italy, 1815-48: Italy a "geographical expression"; ef- 
fects of Napoleon's conquests and reforms ; Austrian pos- 
sessions and influence in Italy 

b Struggles against Austrian absolution, 1815-48: the Car- 
bonari; Mazzini ; the revolution of 1848; Charles Albert and 
the Constitution ; failure of the revolutionary war against 
Austria 

56 Germany : the struggle for liberty and unity in Germany 

1815-48 

a The German Confederation of 1815: its defects and weak- 
nesses ; Metternich's influence ; why Austria and Prussia 
were rivals ; Prussia's customs union {sollverein) and its 
importance 

b The Revolutions of 1848: growth of liberalism since 1815; 
revolutionary meetings ; attempts at suppression ; the re- 
action ; effects of the Paris Revolution of 1848 on events in 
Prussia; the Constitution of 1850 in Prussia 

57 Austria, the state blocking unity in Germany and Italy 

a Various races in Austria-Hungary : their characteristics and 
ambitions ; the Pan Slavic movement 



254 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Metternich's policy the dominant factor 1815-48 
c The revolutions of 1848: flight of Metternich ; accession of 
Francis Joseph ; revolts in Bohemia and Hungary ; Hun- 
garian Constitution of 1848 ; suppression of revolts 

58 Summary : general results of the revolutionary movements of 

1848; how the revolutions of 1848 affected the United States 
a Failure to attain the ends sought 
b Some gains for the liberal movement and in the struggle for 

nationality 

Map work 

Map of Austria-Hungary showing the races 

Library and notebook topics 

A The national workshops in Paris 

B Louis Blanc 

C The growth of the labor party in France and its overthrow 

D The part that students played in the German revolution of 1848 

E Carl Schurz, his life and services 

F The March revolution in Austria 

G Kossuth 

X Wars for national unity 

59 The unification of Italy 

a The Kingdom of Sardinia : a review of its history, its ex- 
tent and its government 

b Other principalities in Italy 

c Union of Italy under Victor Emanuel 2 (1849-78) : position 
of Piedmont in Italy; Cavour's aims and diplomatic achieve- 
ments ; the war of 1859 with Austria and its results ; Gari- 
baldi's career and additions to the Kingdom of Italy ; the 
Roman question ; final union of Italy, 1870 

d The Papacy: how its power was affected by the union of 
Italy; "the prisoner of the Vatican"; Leo 13 and his policy 

e The Kingdom of Italy since 1870: parliamentary govern- 
ment; economic distress and emigration; colonial failures 

Library and notebook topics 
A Causes of economic distress in Italy (interview Italian immi- 
grants) 
B Garibaldi's career in America and in Italy 
C The present government of Italy 

Map work 

Sketch map of Italy in 1870, showing, with dates, the ad- 
ditions to Piedmont since 181 5 



HISTORY 255 

60 The unification of Germany 

a First attempts at ( ierman unity : the Frankfort ParHament 

and its failure ; Prussia's humihation and isolation 
b The foundation of the German Empire under Bismarck and 
William I (1858-88) 
(i) Preparation for conflict: reorganization of the Prus- 
sian military system ; Bismarck's earlier career, his char- 
acter, policy of "blood and iron"; his victory over the 
Prussian Parliament 

(2) Triumph of Prussia over Austria: the Schleswig-Hol- 
stein War with Denmark, 1864; the Austro-Prussian 
War of 1866; end of the German Confederation; the 
North German Confederation, 1867; Austria's position 
after 1867 

(3) The Franco-Prussian War, 1870-71: causes; German 
victories ; proclamation of the New German Empire ; " Em- 
peror William i " ; Alsace Lorraine 

(4) Germany since the Franco-Prussian ^^^ar: the Triple 
Alliance ; William 2 ; German colonial policy ; the power 
of the Social Democrats 

Libra)"}' and notebook topics 
A March Revolution in Berlin, 1848 
B Comparison of French and German preparations before the war of 

1870 
C Bismarck as a stateman 

D The principles, leaders, and power of the Social Democrats in 
Germany 

XI France under the Second Empire and the Third Republic 

61 The coup d'etat of President Napoleon and the Second Em- 

pire 
a The Constitution of 1852 
b The proclamation of an empire 

( 1 ) The autocratic empire 

(2) Attacks on it and the granting of liberal reforms 

(3) The liberal empire 

(4) The parliamentary empire 

(5) The plebiscite of 1870 

62 The Franco-Prussian War, 1870 and the Third Republic 
a The fall of the Empire 

b The National Assembly 
c The Commune 



256 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d The government of Thiers 

e Government by the conservatives or monarchists 
/ The Constitution of 1875 

g The i6th of May 1877 — formation of a reactionary min- 
istry by McMahon 
h The victory and the reforms of the Repubhcan party 
i Alsace Lorraine question : General Boulanger 
y Panama and the Dreyfus scandals 
k The separation of church and state 
/ Political parties 
m Colonial expansions 

63 Outline of the government of France of today 

Library and notebook topics 
A France and the Suez canal 
B France and the Panama canal 

XII The Empire of Germany, 1871 — 

64 The ascendancy of Prussia 

a Proclamation of the Empire at Paris 

h Acceptance of the Empire by other German states 

c The position of Prussia and the other states 

d The Constitution 

e The political parties 

/ Struggle against the Catholic party ; the Knlter Kampf 

g Bismarck and the protectionist policy 

h Struggle against the socialists ; socialistic doctrines and their 

gains 
i William 2 : his character and influence 
j The Alsace Lorraine question 
k Colonial expansion 

65 The government of Germany of today 

Library and notebook topics 

A The Kultiir Kampf: an international problem 
B The Socialist parties in Germany 
C German colonial ventures 

XIII Austria-Hungary since 1848 

66 The humiliation and weakness of Austria 
a Results of the policy of Metternich 

b Erancis Joseph : his character and influence 
c The Austro-Prussian War 1866: Sadowa 
d Establishment of the Dual Monarchy 1867: how brought 
about 



HISTORY 257 

e Austria-Hungary since 1867: acquisitions of territory; inter- 
ests in the Balkan peninsula ; internal difficulties 
/ The church, education and the suffrage 
g Political parties : socialism 

67 The government of Austria-Hungary of today 

Library and notebook topics 
A Austria-Hungary : its physical strength ; its political weakness 
B Discussion : the future of Austria-Hungary 

XIV England since 1848 

68 Political and social reforms and industrial decline 
a The government of Palmerston 

( 1 ) The Crimean War 

(2) English attitude toward the Civil War in the United 
States 

(3) The Alabama Claims 

b The electoral reform of 1867 

c Reforms by Gladstone 

d The trade unions 

c The Irish famine of 1845-49: causes and results; emigration 

/ Reforms in Ireland; the Fenians 

g The ministry of Disraeli 

h The home rule question for Ireland 

/ The electoral reform of 1884 

; The Unionist coalition against the Liberals 

k The coalition of the Home Rulers and the Liberals : Pamell 
and Gladstone 

/ The victory of the Liberals : the Land Acts for Ireland 
m Workingmen in politics 

n Democratic reforms : the ballot, the press and local govern- 
ment 

The Conservatives in power 

p The Liberals and socialistic legislation 

69 Government in England at the present time 

a The Constitution : its nature ; how it may be changed 

b The voters 

c Parliament : the peerage ; the House of Lords and its com- 
position : the House of Commons, how chosen and how dis- 
solved 

d Executive power : the place of the King in the government ; 
the cabinet, how chosen ; powers and duties of the cabinet 

e The judiciary 



258 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

70 The colonies and their governments : Canada as an example 
a Review of Canadian history : the Hudson's Bay Company ; 

the Rebelhon of 1837; the Dominion; the Constitution of 
1867 
b The great industrial development of the country 

71 Literature: leading English authors of the 19th century 

72 Social conditions 

a Agriculture : land tenure in England, Scotland and Ireland ; 

decline of agricultural prosperity ; reasons for the decline 
b Labor : its present condition 
c Philanthropic reforms: relief of the poor; tenement house 

reforms ; social effects of the writings of Besant and other 

authors 
d Growth of cities : causes ; municipal ownership 
e Education : the Education Acts and their effects ; English 

schools and universities ; agitation against church control 
/ Growth of socialism ; old age pensions 

Library and notebook topics 

A Imprisonment for debt 

B Imperial Federation 

C Growth of religious toleration as seen in legislation towards 
Catholics and Jews 

D The life and influence of Victoria 

E The power of George 5 compared with that of some of his pre- 
decessors 

F The suffragettes 

Map zvork 

Map of the world showing England and her colonial posses- 
sions 

XV The Russian empire in the igth century 

73 The development of Russia in the 19th century 

Map zvork 

Russia at the opening of the 19th century 

a The races 

b Character of the country ; agricultural conditions 

c Alexander i, 1801-25: early liberal policy; later reaction- 
ary policy 

d Nicholas i, 1825-55: his character and domestic policy; 
beginning of the Slavophil movement ; the Polish revolt 
1830; attempts to stamp out liberalism; estabHshment of 



HISTORY 259 

the secret police ; the " Third Section " ; the effects of the 
Crimean War on Russia 

e The hberal movement since the Crimean War: Alexander 
2; condition of the serfs; emancipation; the effects not as 
thorough or as good as supposed ; the mir ; state serfs 
other liberal reforms; Pohsh revolt of 1863; Nihilists and 
their methods ; the policy of Russianization and its results 
the zemstvos; General Trepoff as a type of Russian official 
dom; terrorism; the policy of keeping Russia " frozen " 
the industrial revolution in Russia changes the population 
in character and abode ; the laboring classes in the cities 
rapid spread of revolutionary ideas 

/ Nicholas 2 : attitude toward liberalism ; the growth of 
radical parties ; massacres of Jews ; the War with Japan ; 
Van Plehve's assassination; Red Sunday; the Duma, first, 
second and third ; small results ; insecure state of the 
government ; the treatment of Finland 

g The expansion of Russia toward the Pacific : the Trans- 
Siberian Railroad 

74 The government of Russia today 
Library and notebook topics 

A The Siberian exile system 

B The censorship of the press in Russia 

C The story of some Jewish refugee 

D A day in a Russian viir 

E The present condition of Russian peasants 

F The industrial revolution in Russia and its effects 

XVI The Near Eastern Question 

75 Turkey and the Eastern Question 

a The Ottoman Turks : their conquest of Constantinople, 1453 ; 
extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1814; its government; the 
stibject peoples ruled by the Turks; why this rule has been 
hated 

b The War of Greek Independence, 1821-29: the Kingdom of 
Greece and its sttbsequent history 

c The Crimean War, 1854-56: Russia's ambitions; " The Sick 
Man of Europe " ; causes and results of the war 

d The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-78: revolts from Turkish 
rule ; the " Bulgarian atrocities " ; Russia's demands and at- 
tempt at enforcement; Congress of Berlin (1878) and its 
settlement of the Eastern Question 

17 



26o THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

e Turkey and the Balkan states : their ambitions and troubles ; 
the Macedonian Question ; the Armenian Question ; policy of 
England and of Russia in the Near East 

Map work 

Sketch map showing the states of southeastern Europe at the 
present 
76 The Turkish Revolution of 1909 

a The party of reform : its composition and its policies 
h The deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid 

c The present government of Turkey : its constitutional char- 
acter 

NOTE. Nearly all the topics in sections XVII-XX will best be treated by 
the library and notebook method; for they belong to the field of kaleido- 
scopic, present day history. The subject-matter by its very nature calls for 
large discrimination and selection by the teacher. 

All long-range examinations on these sections should consist of questions 
general in scope or should offer such variety of options that they will test 
the quality of the pupil's work rather than its extent. 

XVII Europe in Asia 

'j'j Review of early exploration (Portuguese, French, Dutch, 
English) 
Reasons for England's attainment of supremacy 

78 England's East India Company 

a The government of India under the Company 

(i) The Sepoy Rebellion 

(2) The change in the government 
h The Indian Empire 

(i) Its acquisition and extent 

(2) Its governiTient 

(3) England's policy 

(4) Burmah and Malacca 

c The protection of English interests in Asia 
(i) Competition with Russia 

(2) Preservation of Turkey 

(3) The Afghan War 

79 The Australasian colonies 

a Why included in the general Asiatic sphere 
h New Zealand : its settlement ; its government ; its experi- 
ments in government 
c Australia : its various settlements ; its governments ; the con- 
federation 



HISTORY 261 

80 France in Cochin China and Cambodia 
a Tonkin 

h The government of French Asiatic possessions 

81 Holland in Java 

82 Russia in Asia 

a Extent of Russia's domain in Asia 

b The conquest of Siberia 

c Spread to the south : Ivan and Turkestan 

d Competition with England 

e Railroad building 

/ Russian influence in Turkey and Persia 

g The Anglo-Russian boundary 

83 China and the European invasion 

a The extent of China ; its government and its civilization 

b First contact with Europeans 

c Anglo-French expeditions 

d The Opium War 

e Missionaries and European influence 

/ The Boxer uprising 

g The open door policy 

// Recent tendencies to accept European ideas 

84 Japan and the European invasion 

a The size of Japan and its government 

b Commodore Perry and trade relations 

c Hostility to Europeans 

d The beginnings of a new policy 

e Acceptance of European ideas 

/ The China-Japan War 

g European annexations in China 

h The Russo-Japanese War 

i Japan as a world power 

j Japan in its relations to the Philippines and the United States 

85 Contrasts between the governments of China and Japan 

XVIII Europe in Africa 

86 The Dark Continent 
a Map of Africa, 1800 

b Reasons for the ignorance concerning Africa 
(■ The explorations of Livingstone and Stanley 

87 The French in northern Africa 

a Algeria : its acquisition and colonization 
b Tunis : Italy's hopes ; the French seizure 



262 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c The questions of Tripoli and Morocco 

d The Algeciras Conference 

e Other African possessions of France 

/ French government of colonies and colonial policy 

88 The English in Africa 

a The Cape of Good Hope and South Africa 

h Discovery of gold and diamonds 

c The Boer War 

d Egypt under Turkish rule 

e The Suez canal 

/ England's interference in Egypt 

g England's assumption of a virtual protectorate of Egypt and 

then possession 
h War in the Soudan 
i The Cape to Cairo Railway 

89 Other European nations in Africa 

a Germany in Africa — east and west 
b Italy in Africa : Abyssinia ; the war 
c Belgium in Africa : the Congo Free State 

90 The general partition of Africa 
a Convention of Berlin 

h The present status of African occupation 
Map work 

Map of Africa at the present time 

XIX North and South America 

91 European control : the gaining of independence 

a The claiming and colonization of North and South America 

by Europeans prior to 1700 
h Throwing off the yoke of European control 

(i) The English colonies 1776-83 

(2) The Spanish colonies 1810-26 
(a) Argentina, 1806-20 

(h) Chili, 1810-18; Central American provinces, 1820- 
21 ; Mexico, 1820-21 ; Peru, 1820-26 

(3) The Portuguese colony, Brazil, 1802-22 

(4) Canada, the only colony in North or South America, 
controlled by Europeans ; its virtual independence 

92 Spain's colonies 

a Character of the population 

h Causes of the wars of independence: the decline of Spain; 
the Carlists ; the influence of Napoleon 



HISTORY , 263 

c Bolivar the liberator 

d The creation of republics 

e The protection afforded by England's attitude toward the 
Holy Alliance and by the Monroe Doctrine 

/ The history of the chief republics: Mexico a type (i) 48 
revolutions and 250 ministries. (2) President Diaz, a 
benevolent dictator 

g Governments of the republics : the constitutions of the first 
French republic and of the United States used as models 

h Civil wars in the republics: (i) General causes. (2) Lack 
of i)olitical ideals and traditions. (3) Character of the 
masses of the people. (4) Political parties in each repub- 
lic ; Liberals and Conservatives ; Centralists and Federalists 

Map work 

Map of South and Central America about 1800 

93 Brazil : a refuge of Portuguese royalty ; a republic 1889 

94 The industrial advance of Latin American and the relations 

of the United States to her southern neighbors 
a The struggle between Germany, France, England and the 

United States for commercial supremacy 
b The Panama Canal 
c The Bureau of American Republics : the United States as 

a leader — a nonpolitical institution to promote industry 

and commerce 
d The Argentine Republic : its agricultural and commercial 

importance 
e Brazil : its great extent and natural wealth 
/ The United States, a dominating factor in Central America: 

interference in Venezuela, Panama and Nicaraugua 

Map zvork 

Map showing the states and the commercial products of 
each, in South America, Central America and Mexico 

Library and notebook topics 

A Bolivar 

B The Archduke Maximilian in Mexico 
C The quarrel between the United States and Chili 
D Charts showing nature and increasing values of exports and im- 
ports between the United States and South America 

Map zvork 

Map showing railway and steamship connections between 
the United States and Mexico 



264 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

XX Contemporary Europe 

95 Alliances of European powers 

a The triple alliance : Germany, Austria, Italy 

b The dual alliance : France and Russia 

c England's splendid isolation : the Anglo-Japanese Treaty 

96 The armaments of Europe 

a Armies : the Prussian ideal ; the armies of Germany, Aus- 
tria, Italy, France, Russia, England and Japan ; modern im- 
provements in destructive warfare 

b Navies : the English ideal ; the navies of other European 
countries ; improvements in naval warfare 

c Influences making for peace 

(i) The destructiveness of modern warfare 

(2) Arbitration: the Hague Tribunal 

(3) The economic burdens imposed by standing armies and 
navies 

(4) The influence of commercial and industrial interests 

97 Changing social conditions 
a Humanitarian progress 

(i) Change in feeling towards suffering from political and 
industrial oppression 

(2) England as a leader 

(3) Abolition of slavery 

(4) Abolition of serfdom 

(5) Changes in penal legislation 

(6) The scientific study of crime: Lombroso 

(7) Legislation for bettering the condition of the poor 

(8) The state as an agent for charity 
b Education 

(i) Gradual assumption by the state of the burden of edu- 
cating the people 

(2) The condition of education in the countries of Europe: 
England, France, Germany 

(3) Educating the workers: evening schools; trade schools; 
schools of agriculture and forestry 

c Religion 

(i) The survival of state-supported churches in European 
countries 

(2) The growth of tolerance and religious liberty 

(3) The suppression of state churches in France and Italy 

(4) Conditions in Spain 



HISTORY 265 

d Socialism 

(i) The many interpretations of the word 

(2) Growth of socialism due to the fact that political free- 
dom did not change the economic conditions of the 
masses 

(3) Robert Owen in England 

(4) Saint Simon and Fourier 

(5) Louis Blanc and Proudhon ; Karl Marx and the Inter- 
national 

(6) Intelligent socialism demands the gradual assumption 
by the state of the means of production 

(7) Its influence on legislation as seen in factory laws, old 
age pensions, life insurance 

98 Governments 

a The decline of absolute monarchy 

b Participation of the people 

c England as a model 

d Representation of the people a basic principle 

c The backwardness of the judicial systems of the Continent 

as compared with the English system 
/ Extreme democracy (Switzerland a type) ; the privilege of 

voting ; universal suffrage ; its relation to education 

99 Transportation and communication 

a Their importance to the relations between states 
h The steam and electric locomotive ; the ocean liner ; the air- 
ship 
c The telegraph, telephone, cable and wireless telegram : their 

services social and commercial 
d The newspaper: its value as a maker of public opinion 
e The postal system ; its development in some European coun- 
tries 
/ Increase in the variety of occupations caused by improve- 
ments in transportation and communication 

AMERICAN HISTORY 

The scientific investigations of distinguished foreign scholars like 
DeTocqueville, Von Hoist and Bryce have been followed by the 
creation of a new school of American historians whose work has 
been to show that the American Constitution was not *' struck off at 
a given time by the brain and purpose of man," but that the history 
of America, like that of every other country, has been an outgrowth 



266 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

from previous conditions — that America has never occupied an 
isolated position, but that it has been influenced throughout its de- 
velopment by other nations and that it has in its turn influenced 
them ; that we can not understand present conditions in our own 
country without studying how these conditions have come to be ; 
that patriotism no longer means adhesion to the statement, " My 
country, right or wrong, My country," but a united effort on the 
part of all its citizens to make the country right. 

This new point of view of the historian has been reflected in the 
textbook written for the schools. This no longer presents in flam- 
boyant style the traditional spectacular events that collectively 
have been called " the history of the United States," but it treats 
the history of the country as a natural development. It is no 
longer a heterogeneous collection of miscellaneous facts chrono- 
logically arranged — but it is an orderly presentation of related 
events. It is not based on rumor, traditions, theories and pre- 
viously conceived ideas, but on careful investigation of the authori- 
ties used. It does not assume that " advanced work in history con- 
sists in reading larger books and more of them," but it adapts both 
matter and method to the capacities of those who are to use it. 
The textbook for the elementary and grammar grades presents the 
picturescjue and imaginative side of history in order that the child 
may have a vivid picture of the conspicuous events of the past. 
The textbook for the secondary school places emphasis on under- 
lying causes and on the development of great movements in order 
that the young citizen may appreciate how large is his heritage from 
the past, how great his obligation to the future. 

The new teacher of American history is both a cause and a result 
of the new textbook. He appreciates the irriportance of treating 
American history as a continuous development from European his- 
tory — not as a disconnected series of special creations. He under- 
stands that all society is organic in character and that therefore 
history can not be taught as a description of inorganic matter. He 
knows that the essential in teaching the American Constitution is 
to teach its underlying principles as they were developed from 
political conditions, not to teach isolated^ unrelated facts. He 
does not " put the cart before the horse," to use the homely phrase, 
and attempt to teach civics as a disconnected subject made up of 
abstractions and constantly fluctuating facts, but he teaches it as 
an outgrowth of the political conditions of the country. He 
realizes that it is far more important to know why every state in 
the Union has its own Constitution and how the functions of the 



HISTORY 267 

state government resemble or differ from those of the federal 
government than it is to learn by heart the names of the state 
officers and the amount of salary attached to each office. He com- 
prehends that in material as well as in spiritual affairs '* the things 
that are seen are temporal, but the things that are unseen are 
eternal," and he teaches not the boundaries of various assembly 
and senatorial districts, but what were the historical conditions 
that gave rise to a representative legislative body and why that 
body was composed of two houses. He uses the newspaper, not as 
a purveyor of transient gossip, but as an intelligent aid in the inter- 
pretation of the past by the present. He welcomes pictures in his 
work, not that of Sir Francis Drake discovering the Pacific, but that 
of the New England town with its meetinghouse and its school- 
house; not the picture of the battle scene that might be labeled any 
one of a hundred conflicts, but the plan of a Southern plantation 
showing the relative location of its numerous buildings ; not the 
photograph of the reigning political boss, but the seal of the federal 
government and what it signifies. He utilizes outline maps, not to 
locate the counties in a state, but to show the territories explored 
by different nationalities and the routes taken by the pioneers in 
their westward march. He uses a hundred tools in his work where 
his unskilled predecessor used but one, and the resulting product 
is not a crude caricature of the past but a faithful, scientific and 
artistic delineation of the development of America from Europe. 

The teacher of today who teaches American history appreciates 
Professor Maitland's apostrophe of the map of England — "that 
most wonderful of all palimpsests ! " He sees in the map of 
America another most wonderful palimpsest whereon have been 
written the hopes and aspirations and discouragements, the failures 
and successes of Spaniard and Frenchman, Swede and Hollander 
and Englishman, of monk and friar, of fur trader and lumberman, 
of frontiersman and immigrant, of political refugee and religious 
enthusiast. How indeed, he may say, can he know the real America 
unless he knows it in its Eurojiean home ? How can he train those 
who may be called on to legislate for the Italians in their American 
home unless they have been taught the failures and successes of that 
great uprising for independence and unity that culminated in the 
establishment of the kingdom of Italy — how understand the Ger- 
man of the Northwest without a knowledge of the idealism in poli- 
tics, art. literature, and music that found expression in the revolu- 
tionary uprising of '48 and sent the flower of German youth to our 
shores — how deal in wisdom and patience with the Hungarians 



268 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

coming to us unless we realize the passionate aspirations for political 
liberty of the Hungarians in Europe — how assimilate the nearly 
one niillon foreigners who come annually to our shores unless we 
know why they left their native land as well as why they have come 
to us ? 

If then the new American history strikes its roots deep down into 
European soil it is because the height and the strength of the tree 
demands it and because its very life depends on it. 

The accompanying outlines of study proposed for the syllabuses 
in American history and civics have been prepared in accordance 
with the following recommendations and considerations : 

1 That of the full time given to American history and civics, 
three fifths be devoted to history and two fifths to civics. Cor- 
responding emphasis will be given to these subjects in the examina- 
tions. 

2 That the work down to 1783 be given as a review summary 
and that in this review the syllabus be closely followed. 

3 That the main emphasis in the teaching of American history 
be placed on the development of the country under independent 
government — 1783 — to the present time. 

4 That American history from 1783 be taught by periods as fol- 
lows : (a) 1783-1829; (b) 1829-65; (c) 1865 to the present. 

5 That under each of these periods five lines of development be 
presented ; viz, political, territorial, commercial, industrial, social ; 
and that in teaching American history, while it may be impossible to 
cover the entire syllabus, a fair balance be preserved between the 
five fields named. 

Lists of required readings to be varied from year to year will 
be found on pages 290-300. One or more questions based on these 
required readings will be included in each examination. Questions 
calling for minute details will not be asked. 

While history and civics will generally be taught in difiierent 
recitation periods, it is highly important that the relations between 
them be made clear as the study of each proceeds and a definite 
number of recitations, probably not less than 10 per cent, be set 
aside for topical reviews in which the grozvth of government as well 
as its past and present manifestations may be revealed. 

NOTE. Regarding the use of selected readings, library and notebook topics 
and notebooks, the teacher should consult the general introduction to the 

history syllabus. 



HISTORY 



269 




its resources and inhab- 



BEGINNINGS 
I 492-1 760 

I f I The land 

The period of d'scovcryj itants 

and colonization, 1492- | 2 The period of colonization and dis- 
I 760 [ covery 



II 

The period of the Revolu 
tion, 1760-83 



III 

The critical period, 1783- 



IV 
Political development, 1789- 
1829 

V 

Social, economic and indus- 
dustrial development, 

1 760-1829 



THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF THE NATION 
I 760-1 829 

3 Important developments in the col- 
onies down to 1775 

4 The underlying causes of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, specially the eco- 
nomic causes 

1 Surface or precipitating causes of 
the Revolution 

I Chief events and result of the Revo- 
lution 

' The Articles of Confederation 



8 The Constitution 

9 The Federalist supremacy 

10 Supremacy of the Jeffcrsonian Re- 

publicans, 1801-17 

1 1 Political reorganization and triumph 

of national democracy 

12 Growth of the nation in states and 

territory 

13 The development of commerce 

14 Industrial progress 

15 Social conditions 



16 



VI 

Pohtical history, 1829-65 



VII 
General progress, 1829-65 



THE TESTING PERIOD OF THE UNION; A CONFLICT OF SOCIAL AND 
POLITICAL ideals; MARKED MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS 

1829-1865 

' 16 National democracy — " The Jack- 
sonian Epoch " 1829-41 

1 7 Twenty years of political conflict over 
the extension of slavery to the 
triumph of the Republican party, 
i860 

18 Secession and Civil War 

19 Territorial growth 

20 Commercial development 

21 Industrial growth 
[ 22 Social progress 



270 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



General survey of the field 



u a 



16 



VIII 

Political history, 1865 



IX 

General progress, 1865- 



RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION — RECUPERATION AND EXPANSION 

1865- 

23 Reconstruction: political problems, 
national and sectional 

24 Principal lines of development in 
domestic politics, 1871 to the pres- 
ent 

25 Foreign relations; expansion, 1865 
to the present 

' 26 Territorial expansion 

27 American com,merce 

28 Industrial growth 
, 29 Social progress 



OUTLINE 

BEGINNINGS 
1492-1760 

I The period of discovery and colonization 

I Introductory : the land, its resources and native peoples 
a Physical features 

(i) A map of North America with the chief physical fea- 
tures 
(2) A study of the physical features of the United States 
with reference to (a) drainage; (b) climate; (c) accessi- 
bility for exploration and settlement 
b Resources of the United States 

•( I ) Soil — agricultural advantages of different sections 
(2) Metals, minerals and other material resources 
c Commercial advantages 

(i) General location of the United States with reference to 
other countries 

(2) Lakes and rivers available as an aid to foreign com- 
merce 

(3) Seacoast and harbors 
d The American Indians 

(i) Regions occupied by the leading nations or tribes 

(2) Characteristics and civilization of the principal tribes 

(3) Trails of travel and trade 

(4) The native tribes as helps and as hindrances to coloni- 
zation 



HISTORY 271 

2 Review of the period of discovery and colonization 1 492-1 760 

[see syllabus of Modern history touching the large points in 
sections 50, 53, 57-60, 63, 65, 66, 67-b, and taking up with 
greater detail sections 75-82] 

Map work 

Map showing the possessions of the English, the French and 
the Spanish by the Treaty of Paris 1763 

THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF THE NATION 
1760-1829 

II The period of the Revolution, 1760-83 

Brief review of lines of development in the colonies down 
to 1775 which had an important bearing on the subsequent 
history of the country 

3 Important developments in the colonies down to 1775 

a Political, (i) Distinction between royal, proprietary and 
charter government with examples of each. (2) Views of 
the colonists as to their " rights as Englishmen." (3) De- 
velopment of representative government with definite ex- 
amples from Virginia, Massachusetts and New York. (4) 
Views of the colonists on the matter of a '' personal union " 
and a " legislative union " with England and the results. 

(5) How the English and American ideas of represen- 
tation and voting grew apart from the time of the first 
legislative assembly in Virginia, 1619, to the Revolution. 

(6) Growth of political union ; New England confederation 
of 1643; Albany Congress 1754; Stamp Act Congress 1765; 
colonial committees of correspondence 1772; First Conti- 
nental Congress 1774 

b Commercial. Brief review of conditions and growth of 
colonial commerce down to 1700; rapid expansion of com- 
merce in the first half of the i8th century, due in part to the 
period of peace following the Treaty of Utrecht 1713; ex- 
ports and imports; the slave trade; pirates; effects of Eng- 
land's restrictions on colonial commerce; nonimportation 
agreements and resolutions by merchants, colonists and 
Congress as a means of defense 1765-75 
c Industrial and economic; principal colonial industries 

(i) Occupations in the northern colonies compared with 
those of the southern. (2) Number and distribution of 
slaves in 1760. (3) Restrictions on industries. (4) 
England's purpose in attempting to limit the colonists to 



272 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

agricultural pursuits and the results. (5) Effect of cheap 

land on wages and labor 
d Social (i) Effect of colonial occupations on the develop- 
ment of social ideas ; e. g. why did the people of New Eng- 
land grow more democratic during the colonial period and 
the people of the South more aristocratic? (2) Religious 
views of the early colonists, particularly in New England and 
their effect upon the social life of the people — the ''blue 
laws." (3) The growth of religious toleration and religious 
freedom; Roger Williams and the separation of church and 
state. (4) Statement of educational conditions in 1760 

4 The underlying causes of the American Revolution, specially 
the economic causes (a summary) 

5 Surface or precipitating causes of the Revolution 

6 Chief events and results of the war 

(Map showing the three fields of operation in the war — New 
England, Middle States, the South — with location and dates 
of the most important battles) 
a The war before the Declaration of Independence — the New 
England campaign 
(i) A struggle for the "rights of Englishmen" rather than 
for independence 

(2) Lexington and Concord — their results 

(3) The evacuation of Boston and its results, including the 
relation of the battle of Bunker Hill and the capture of 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga to this event 

b Growth toward independence — 1775-76 

(i) Refusal by George 3 of the "Olive Branch" Petition 

(2) The formation of state governments 

(3) The establishment of a national organization 

(4) The arguments of Thomas Paine 

(5) The employment of " foreign mercenaries " 

c The Declaration of Independence — its history and leading 

principles 
d The campaign in the Middle States 

(i) The condition of the American cause in 1776 

(2) Washington's brilliant exploits in New York and New 
Jersey 

(3) The two purposes of the English in the campaign of 
1777; the results 



HISTORY 273 

e The campaign in the South 

( 1 ) Reasons why the Enghsh transferred the war to the 
South 

(2) Reason for Cornwalhs's occupying Yorktown and Wash- 
ington's strategy in eiTecting his capture 

/ The terms of the Treaty of Paris 1783, with map showing 
results 

Library and notebook topics 

A Estimate of the services of the navy and the privateers, with con- 
spicuous examples 
B The aid of the French and its great importance 
C Conspicuous examples of lack of patriotism in the war 
D An estimate of the services of the great leaders of the Revolu- 
tionary period, particularly Patrick Henry, James Otis, Samuel 
Adams, John Dickinson, George Washington and Benjamin 
Franklin 

III The critical period, 1783-89 

7 The Articles of Confederation 

a Preliminary study — the first period of independent govern- 
ment — July 4, 1776, to the adoption of the Articles of 
Confederation 
(i) Character, organization and duration of the Second 

Continental Congress 
(2) Sovereign powers exercised by the Second Continental 
Congress 
b The second period of independent government — the Articles 
of Confederation, 1783-89 
(i) Brief account of the formation and adoption 

(2) Main features of the framework of government 

(3) Leading defects of the articles as shown particularly 
in ia) the attempts to amend; {b) dealings with the army; 
(r) raising revenue; {d) foreign relations; (e) troubles 
in the states, e. g. boundary disputes ; trade discrimination ; 
paper money craze 

(4) Progress under the articles, (a) The cession to the 
national government of lands claimed by the states. (Il- 
lustrate by map) (b) The Ordinance of 1787 — its prin- 
cipal provisions and importance, (r) Social and political 
progress as shown particularly by slave emancipation by 
different states, by growth toward religious freedom ; in 
liberalizing the franchise; in modifying the laws of in- 
heritance 



274 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(5) Great importance of the Articles of Confederation 

8 The Constitution 

(The third period of independent government, 1789-) 
a Prehminary study 

(i) Purposes and results of the convention at Alexandria, 
1785 

(2) The convention at Annapolis, 1786 — purposes, results 
b The Federal Convention, 1787 

(i) Method of calling the convention 

(2) Character and ability of the delegates 

(3) Authority vested in the convention and how such au- 
thority was exceeded 

(4) Difficulties facing the convention which made it neces- 
sary to " lay the foundations of the Constitution in com- 
promise " 

(5) The three great compromises of the Constitution 

(6) The six objects set forth in the preamble with historical 
reasons for each 

(7) The value of Madison's notes 
c Ratification of the Constitution 

(i) Method of ratification by th^ states 

(2) Seriousness of the crisis — Sept. 28, 1787 to June 21, 
1788 — Federalists and Antifederalists — leading argu- 
ments of each 

(3) The struggle in New York over ratification 
d The sources of the Constitution 

e Estimate of the services of the men most influential in the 
framing and ratifying of the Constitution — particularly 
Washington, Franklin, Madison, Hamilton, Wilson, Gouver- 
neur Morris 

ly Political development, 1879-1829 

9 The Federalist supremacy, 1789- 1800 
a Preliminary study 

(i) The beginning of poHtical parties in the Federal Con- 
vention and in the contest in the states over the ratification 
of the Constitution 
(2) The ratification of the Constitution and the election of 
Washington bring the Federalists into control 
b The organization of the government under Washington 
c " Strict constructionist " and " loose constructionist " views 
of the Constitution; the attitude of the Federalists 



HISTORY 275 

d Financial policies of the Federalists; Hamilton's plans and 
influence 
(i) The foreign debt 

(2) The " domestic debt " 

(3) The assumption of state debts and the location of the 
national capital 

(4) The first excise tax; the whiskey rebellion 

(5) Establishment of the first United States bank 

(6) First tarifif laws — the principles of protection and free 
trade 

e Foreign relations 

(i) With Great Britain: questions left unsettled by the 
Treaty of 1783; Jay's Treaty, events preceding, provisions, 
results — 1793-95 

(2) With France: the neutrality proclamation of 1793, 
Genet ; efifect of Jay's treaty on the attitude of France ; 
John Adams and the X Y Z afifair ; treaty with France, 
1800 

(3) With Spain: navigation of the Mississippi, Treaty of 

1795 
/ The rise of the Republican party 

(i) Origin, its leaders and their views 
(2) The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions; the "compact 
theory " of the Constitution 
g The fall of the Federalists ; causes 

(i) Failure to understand the nature of democratic govern- 
ment — e. g. Hamilton's opinion of the people 

(2) Alien and Sedition Laws — provisions, results 

(3) Increased taxes and other causes 
h The election of Jefferson 

10 Supremacy of the Jefifersonian Republicans. 1801-17 
a Significance of the political revolution of 1800 
b Jefiferson's inaugural 
c Foreign relations 

( 1 ) The Barbary wars 

(2) The Louisiana Purchase, 1803 

(3) The conflict between Great Britain and Napoleon leads 
to attacks on American trade. Napoleon's decrees and 
Great Britain's Orders in Council 

(4) The impressment controversy 

(5) Embargo and Nonintercourse Acts — purposes, results 
18 



276 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(6) Madison and the Erskine Treaty 

(7) Macon's Bill No. 2 

(8) The War of 1812 

(a) Review summary of the causes of the war 

(b) The plans and outcome of the war on the land 

(c) The services of the navy and the privateers 

(d) The Treaty of Ghent, 1814 

(e) Justify the name applied to this conflict — "The sec- 
ond war for independence " 

(/) The Hartford Convention 
d Financial policies of the Republicans 
(i) The national debt, 1801 

(2) Jefferson's and Gallatin's policy of retrenchment; re- 
sults; the national debt in 1810 

(3) The national debt at the close of the War of 1812 

(4) The national bank rechartered in 1816 

(5) The tariff of 1816 as a revenue and a protective 
measure 

Library and notebook topics 

A Constitutional development under the Federalists ; e. g. organiza- 
tion and work of the judiciary; the American Bill of Rights; the 
Eleventh Amendment; beginnings of centralization 

B Washington's Farewell Address 

C Troubles with the Indians 

D Jefferson and the Civil Service 

E The Judiciary; repeal of the Judiciary Act; first cases of im- 
peachment 

F The Twelfth Amendment, 1804 

G The Burr-Hamilton duel ; Burr's conspiracy and trial 

II Political reorganization and the triumph of national democ- 
racy, 1817-29 

a Monroe a Republican ; his qualifications for the presidency : 
Contrast his political views with those of Jefferson 

b Growth of a spirit and a policy of nationalism 

( 1 ) Demand for public improvements ; the United States 
bank; tariff laws of 1824 and 1828 — attitude of the 
North, West, South 

(2) Influence of the rapidly growing West 

(3) Nationalizing influence of the Supreme Court's de- 
cisions 



HISTORY 277 

c Foreign relations 

(i) Commercial relations with Great Britain and the Treaty 
of i8t8 

(2) Spain cedes Florida to the United States by the Treaty 
of 1819 

(3) The Monroe Doctrine: foreign relations leading to its 
enunciation ; its authorship, principles, importance 

d Slavery assumes political importance 

(i) The relation of the cotton gin to the Missouri Com- 
promise 
(2) The Missouri Compromises 
e Political reorganization 

(i) Monroe's second election — the decline of parties and 
the " era of good feeling " 

(2) The election of J. O. Adams — political effects; reor- 
ganization of parties during this administration 

(3) The election of Jackson; his character and his fitness 
for the presidency 

V Social, economic and industrial development, 1 760-1829 

12 Growth of the nation in states and territory 
a The United States as a colonizing nation 
b States admitted during this period 

(i) Origin and character of the inhabitants 

(2) Natural resources of these states as an index of their 
future history and influence 

(3) Balance between slave and free states 
c Territory acquired 

(i) Louisiana, 1803 

(2) Basin of the Red river of the North, 1818 

(3) Florida, 1819 

d Territory explored : purpose, results 
(i) Captain Robert Gray, 1792 

(2) Lewis and Clark, 1804 

(3) Lieutenant Zebulon Pike, 1805 

e Map showing (i) 13 original states; (2) states admitted, 
1789-1829; (3) territory held in 1829 

13 The development of commerce, 1789-1829 

a Preliminary study — the purposes of commerce ; obstacles 
to the development of commerce 



278 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

b Internal trade 

(i) Condition of roads; effects on freight traffic, 1789-1800 

(2) The use of waterways in early trade 

(3) The importance of the country store 

(4) Smallness of interstate trade ; the coasting trade 

(5) Improvement of wagon roads, 1800-30: the turnpike 
era 

(6) Beginning and progress of steamboat transportation 

(7) Beginning of the canal system ; the Erie canal 

(8) The first railroad 
c Foreign trade 

(i) Conditions of American trade with Europe, 1789 

(2) Conditions of trade with the West Indies 

(3) Chart showing principal exports, quantities and values, 
1789 

(4) Study of the conditions at home and abroad that caused 
marked fluctuations in our foreign trade as follows: 1790- 
1800, rapid growth; 1801-3, decline; 1804-7, marked in- 
crease; 1808-14, rapid decline; 1815-30, slow but steady 
growth 

(5) Brief history of the merchant marine, 1 789-1 829 

14 Industrial progress, 1 789-1 829 

a Condition and development of the chief industries, 1789- 
1808 

( 1 ) Agriculture, its relative importance 

(2) Fisheries 

(3) Shipping and ship building 

(4) Manufactures: beginning of the protective policy, 1789; 
the birth of the factory system, 1789; Hamilton's report 
on manufactures, 1791 ; articles manufactured in the homes 

b Industrial readjustment following Jefferson's embargo, non- 
intercourse, and the War of 1812; the industrial revolution 
c Inventions and their results upon the industries of this period 

( 1 ) Spinning and weaving machines — how introduced into 
the United States 

(2) The cotton gin 

(3) The steamboat 

d Relative importance of the various industries, 1829 

15 Social conditions 

a The population in 1829 



HISTORY 279 

(1) Number and distribution as compared with the popula- 
tion of 1783; ratio of urban to rural population; principal 
cities 

(2) Immigration, 1800-29 

(3) Influence of slavery in limiting population 
b Intellectual development 

( 1 ) Extension of political rights 

(2) Spread of the common school system; the first high 
schools ; government aid to schools 

(3) The colleges; increased interest in higher education 

(4) Literature; early American writings — largely political, 
why ? Beginnings of an American literature 

c The home life of the people: customs, manners, amusements. 
The common use of intoxicating liquors and early efforts at 
reform 
d The condition of labor 

(i) The ratio of free to slave laborers in the South and in 

the North, 1829 
(2) The condition of laborers: apprentice system; employ- 
ment; beginnings of dififerences between employer and 
employed ; wages ; beginnings of labor organizations, their 
purpose and influence, 1800-29 
e Religion : marked changes in religious ideas ; liberalizing ten- 
dencies 

THE TESTING PERIOD OF THE UNION; A CONFLICT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL 
IDEALS — MARKED MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS, 1829-65 

VI Political history of the period, 1829-65 

16 National democracy — the " Jacksonian Epoch," 1829-41 
a The significance of Jackson's election ; his theory of national 

and state existence compared with that of Jefiferson 
b The introduction of the " Spoils System " 

( 1 ) Change in political methods ; the politicians and the 
" Spoils of Victory " 

(2) The Spoils System in practice 

c Jackson's victory over " Nullification " 

(i) Preliminary study: meaning of the theory of state sov- 
ereignty or states" rights ; the Virginia and Kentucky Reso- 
lutions, 1798-99; the Hartford Convention, 1814; Georgia 
successfully defies the federal government, 1825-27; the 
Tariff of 1828 and Calhoun's " Exposition " 



280 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(2) Webster's reply to Hayne 

(3) Nullification — South Carolina declares the tariff acts 
of 1828 and 1832 null and void 

(4) Jackson's characteristic action; the Force Bill 

(5) The Compromise Tariff of 1833 

d The overthrow of the United States Bank 

( 1 ) Preliminary study ; origin and purpose of the first United 
States Bank; the Second Bank, 1816 

(2) Jackson's attack on the bank; causes of his hostility; 
removal of deposits ; " pet banks " ; results 

e Other financial measures of this period ; distribution of the 

surplus ; the " Specie Circular " 
/ The financial panic of 1837: Van Buren's wisdom in dealing 
with the situation; establishment of the independent treasury 
system 
g Political aspects of the slavery question; slavery petitions in 
Congress, 1836-37; '" Gag Resolutions "; attitude of Calhoun 
and of J. O. Adams 
17 Twenty years of political conflict over the extension of slavery 
— from the close of the " Jacksonian Epoch " to. the triumph 
of the new Republican party, i860 
a The .Whig ascendancy, 1841-45 

(i) Character of the election of 1840 

(2) Tyler's opposition to Whig policies 

(3) The South's desire for more territory; economic and 
political reasons 

(4) The election of 1844; the annexation of Texas as a 
slave state 

b The Mexican War, 1846-48 
(i) The causes 

(2) Summary of results of the campaigns of Generals Tay- 
lor, Scott, Fremont, Kearny 

(3) Terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 1848 
c Slavery in the territories, 1846-60 

( 1 ) The Wilmot Proviso — " The turning point in the his- 
tory of slavery " 

(2) The Oregon Treaty, 1846, and its relation to the exten- 
sion of slavery 

(3) Political confusion in the election of 1848; position of 
the various parties on the slavery question 

(4) Taylor's policy with reference to the admission of Cali- 
fornia 



HISTORY 281 

(5) The Compromise of 1850 and its results, particularly 
with reference to fugitive slaves and the Missouri Com- 
promise 

(6) The election of 1852 — reason for the success of the 
Democrats 

(7) The Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the struggle for Kansas; 
'* popular sovereignty," 1854-61 

(8) Election of 1856; organization of the new Republican 
party 

(9) The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

(10) The Lincoln-Douglas debate, 1858 

(11) John Brown's raid, 1859 

(12) Political influence of Uncle Tom's Cabin and The Im- 
pending Crisis 

(13) The influence of the Abolitionists in shaping the poht- 
ical history of this period 

(14) The election of i860 

d Important financial measures under Polk: the reenactment 
of the Independent Treasury Act; the Walker tarifl^ of 1846 

Library and notebook topic 

The services of Daniel Webster to the cause of the Union 

18 Secession and Civil War 
a Preliminary study ; secession 

(i) The aggressive attitude of the southern leaders in i860 
— end of the period of compromise 

(2) Mistaken ideas of the southern leaders; the underlying 
causes of secession 

(3) Threats of secession before Lincoln's election [see under 
IV, IOC, (8) /; VI, i6c] 

(4) Attempts at compromise after the election: Buchanan's 
suggestions ; the Crittenden Compromise 

(5) Secession of South Carolina and six other states before 
Lincoln's inauguration; Xorthern apathy 

(6) Summary of the grievances and arguments of (a) the 
Secessionists ; (b) the Unionists 

b Civil War, 1861-65 

(i) A study of Lincoln — his history, character, and his 

quahfications for the task before him 
(2) Lincoln's policy — his views as to secession and as to 
his own duty 



282 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(3) Preliminaries of the Great Struggle: Lincoln's selection 
of his advisers ; the activity of the South ; the fall of Fort 
Sumter and Lincoln's first call for volunteers ; effects on 
the North and on the South ; final disposition of the 
" border states " ; formation of the confederate govern- 
ment 

(4) Map showing the seceded states ; the loyal states 

(5) Comparison of the resources in men and other means 
of warfare of the North and of the South 

(6) Map showing the topography of the theater of war 

Leading events of the Civil War; a brief summary by years or 
by campaigns 

(i) 1861 : Assembling of troops for the defense of Wash- 
ington ; organization of the army of the Potomac ; the 
battle of Bull Run ; the Trent affair 

(2) 1862 (West): Opening the upper Mississippi — Forts 
Henry and Donelson, Shiloh ; opening the lower Mississippi 
— New Orleans ; eastern Tennessee — to isolate the Gulf 
states. (East): The Peninsular Campaign; Antietam, 
Fredericksburg 

(3) 1863 (East) : Chancellorsville, Gettysburg (West) : 
Vicksburg ; eastern Tennessee — Chickamauga ; Chatta- 
nooga 

(4) 1864 (East): Grant's campaign against Richmond; 
Sheridan in the Shenandoah valley (West) : Sherman's 
march from Chattanooga to Atlanta, from " Atlanta to the 
Sea " ; Thomas's campaign against Hood, its importance 

(5) 1865: Grant and Lee: Appomattox 

(6) 1861-65 : The blockade and the work of the navy 

Library and notebook topics 

A Northern opposition to the war 

B Financial measures by which Congress carried on the war 

C The attitude of European nations, particularly England and France 

D Lincoln's position on the slavery question ; his " paramount ob- 
ject"; the Emancipation Proclamation 

E Conditions incident to war: enlistment; bounties; prison life; 
camps ; railroad and telegraph. Sanitary and Christian Com- 
missions; services of the student's own town or city 

F The cost of the war in health, life and treasure 

G Grant and Lee ; a comparison 

H Campaign for the control of the Memphis and Charleston Rail- 
road as a study of a strategic campaign 
/ Growth and service of newspapers 



HISTORY 283 

VII General progress, 1829-65 

19 Territorial growth 

a States admitted 1829-65, as showing the development of 

different sections 
b Territory acquired and boundaries settled 1829-65 ; the 

North-east boundary by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 

1842 ; Texas ; Oregon and the northwest boundary ; the 

Mexican Cession ; the Gadsden Purchase 
c Map to illustrate a and b above 

20 Commercial development, 1829-65 
a Internal commerce 

(i) Improvements in transportation 

(a) Railroads: extension east of Allegheny mountains; 
west of Allegheny mountains 1850-60; contrast with 
conditions in the South 

(b) River transportation : increase in number and efficiency 
of steamboats ; growth of internal trade due to this cause 

(c) Extension of the canal system, especially west of the 
Allegheny mountains 

(d) Effects of improved transportation on freight rates 
b Foreign commerce 

(i) The prosperity of the American merchant marine during 
this period 

(2) Influence of the discovery of gold in California 

(3) Great importance of cotton in the foreign trade; justify 
the statement of a southern senator — "Cotton is king" 

(4) Chart, showing chief exports and imports in i860, with 
their comparative values 

21 Industrial growth, 1829-65 

a Preliminary study : .fortunate combination of causes result- 
ing in the marked industrial progress, 1829-60; e. g. im- 
migration and the rapid settlement of the western domain ; 
opportunities afforded by western prairies ; wages in the east ; 
improvements in transportation ; large increase in foreign 
commerce; discovery of gold in California, its influence on 
prices 

b Inventions aiding industrial development : sewing machine ; 
reaper and harvester ; electric telegraph ; improved locomo- 
tives, etc. 



284 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c Agriculture : development of scientific agriculture in the 
North ; improved methods and increased production ; estab- 
lishment of the Bureau of Agriculture, 1862 

d Manufactures : iron, cotton goo.ds, farming implements, etc. 

e Mining: location and development of mines; production of 
metals and minerals 

/ Industrial backwardness of the South 

22 Social progress, 1829-65 
o Intellectual life 

(i) The development of the public school system; normal 
schools ; free high schools ; the education of girls 

(2) Increase in the number and equipment of colleges; 
founding of state universities ; beginning of coeducation 
in colleges 

(3) The development of American literature; noted v/riters 
of this period 

(4) Influence of the lecture platform and the press 

h Religious activities : multiplication of churches and sects ; 

spread of the missionary spirit 
c Communistic settlements ; e. g. Robert Owen ; Brook Farm ; 

the Mormons; causes of the usual failure of communistic 

enterprises 
d Social and moral betterment ; e. g. the temperance movement ; 

prison reform; hospitals 
e Lack of mental activity among the masses in the South 

Library and notebook topics 

A Horace Mann's services to education 

B Structure of southern society 

C The effect of tariff laws, especially the Walker tariff, on the in- 
dustries of this period 

D Economic results of the Civil War: (a) in the North; {b) in 
the South 

RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION — RECUPERATION AND EXPANSION, 1865 TO 

THE PRESENT 

VIII Political history, 1865 to the present 

23 Reconstruction: political problems, national and sectional 

a Constitutional status of the seceded states; a statement of 

the problems of reconstruction 
b Statement of the principles and policies of reconstruction 

as advocated by (i) Lincoln (2) Johnson (3) Congress 
c The actual process of reconstruction, 1865-71 ; how accomp- 



HISTORY 285 

lished ; conflict between President Johnson and Congress : 
the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments and their relation to 
reconstruction 
d PoHtical conditions in the South : ( i ) the f reedmen and the 
ballot; (2) severe laws against the f reedmen ; (3) the "car- 
pet bag" government; Ku Klux ; (4) the Force Bills 

24 Principal lines of development in domestic politics, 1871 to 

the present 
a Civil service reform 

( 1 ) Evils resulting from the " Spoils System '' inaugurated 
by Jackson 

(2) Progress in reforming the civil service, particularly 
under Grant. Arthur, Cleveland and Roosevelt 

b Financial measures and policies 

( 1 ) The national debt at the close of the Civil War and at 
the present time 

(2) Reduction of internal revenues following the war 

(3) The tariff as a political issue; general tendencies of 
tariff legislation 

(4) The election of 1896 on the issue of a gold or a silver 
standard 

(5) Annual income and expenditures of the federal govern- 
ment 

c Politics in the South 

(i) Effect of the race question in politics 

(2) Revising state constitutions so as to restrict the franchise 
d Federal centralization 

(i) Preliminary study — the development of great corpo- 
rations ; influence of the Civil War on the development of 
great corporations 

(2) Extension of federal authority to regulate trusts and 
corporations ; the Interstate Commerce Commission ; the 
Sherman Antitrust Law ; railway rate laws in the states 

25 Foreign relations ; expansion, 1865 to the present 
a The purchase of Alaska, 1867 

b The application of the Monroe Doctrine in Mexico. 1866 

c The Alabama Claims and the Treaty of Washington, 1871 ; 

the Geneva Arbitration 
d The Pan American Congress 

e Cleveland and the Venezuela c^uestion ; arbitration 
/ Treaty with England 



286 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

g The annexation of Hawaii 

h The Spanish- American War: (i) causes; (2) summary of 

results on land and on sea; (3) provisions of the treaty of 

peace 
i Increase of American influence in the Orient; interference 

in China, Secretary Hay's demand for the "open door " ; 

the Oriental question on the Pacific coast 
y The Panama canal 

Library and notebook topics 

A Minor political parties of the United States ; issues for which they 

have stood ; their influence 
B History and causes of financial panics 
C The Hayes-Tilden contest 
D Effects of the protective policy on American industries — some 

typical case like tin plate or cotton textiles 

IX General progress, 1865 to the present 

26 Territorial expansion 

a Increase in the settled area; states admitted, 1865 to the 
present 

b World map with reference to the United States, showing (i) 
the states; (2) the organized territories; (3) principal fed- 
eral land reservations ; (4) foreign territories and depend- 
encies 

27 American commerce, 1865 to the present 
a Internal commerce 

( 1 ) Railroads : increase in mileage ; transcontinental lines ; 
improvements in operation ; reduction in rates ; importance 
of railroads in recent national development 

(2) Rivers, lakes and canals: relative decline in canal and 
river transportation ; importance of the Great Lakes and 
St Mary's canal 

(3) The application of electricity to transportation 

(4) Accessibility of home markets for home products; the 
exchange of home products throughout the United States 

h Foreign commerce 

( 1 ) Exports 

(a) Increase in the value of exports, 1870-1900 
(&) Leading articles exported 

(2) Imports: principal articles imported; comparison of 
values of exports and imports — " balance of trade " 

(3) America's leading markets abroad 



HISTORY 287 

(4) Leading American ports; relative importance of the 
Atlantic ports, Gulf ports. Pacific ports 

(5) The merchant marine 

(a) Comparison of American shipping, 1860-1900 

(b) Causes of decline; the Civil War and other causes 

(c) Present position of the merchant marine 

28 Industrial growth, 1865 to the present 
a Agriculture 

(i) Increase of area under cultivation since the Civil War; 
results of the Homestead Act and other laws in opening 
up the national domain for agriculture 

(2) Comparison of methods used and products produced in 
the three sections, North, South, West 

(3) Organization in the interest of farmers; the Granger 
movement 

b Mining and manufacturing 

(i) Development of the mining industry; relation of mining 
to manufacturing 

(2) Rapid development of manufacturing, particularly in the 
iron and steel industries 
c The " new industrial era " : the efTect on production of the 

concentration of capital in great enterprises — examples and 

illustrations 
d The conflict between labor and capital : strikes, lockouts etc. ; 

labor unions in their relation to industrial progress 
e The industrial transformation of the South 

(i) Industrial conditions at the close of the war 

(2) The labor problem 

(3) The process of recuperation; present conditions under 
free labor compared with antebellum conditions 

29 Social progress, 1865 to the present 

a Growth in population ; immigration, changes in the character 

of immigration ; ratio of urban to rural population 
b Intellectual progress 

(i) Continued expansion of the public school system; begin- 
nings of industrial education ; rapid growth of the high 
schools ; compulsory education 
(2) Higher education: increase in colleges and universities; 
notable bequests to higher education and educational agen- 
cies ; the advance in science ; growth in industrial and 
technical education 



288 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(3) Multiplication of public libraries 

(4) Development of public press and current magazines; 
their enterprise and influence 

(5) Progress of American literature 
c Social betterment 

(i) Progress of the temperance reform since the Civil War 

(2) Reforms in the administration of charities 

(3) Reforms in the management of penal institutions 

(4) Social settlement work and social centers 

(5) The progress of scientific sanitation and the crusade 
against contagious diseases 

(6) American laborers: wages; standard of living; influence 
of labor unions; influence of immigration 

d Wealth and poverty : increase in great fortunes during this 
period; amount of the nation's wealth owned by (i) the 
rich; (2) the well to do; (3) the poor; social conditions 
resulting and their influence upon the welfare of the nation 

e Religious conditions : widening activities of the churches dur- 
ing this period; home missions and Sunday school work as 
an aid in assimilating America's foreign population ; influence 
of Christian teaching upon the moral standards of the nation 
— examples and illustrations 

General review summary 

a Brief summary of the colonial period, 1492-1783 

b Connected review of each of the five fields outlined in this 

syllabus, 1783 to the present: (i) political; (2) territorial; (3) 

commercial; (4) industrial; (5) social 

Library and notebook topics 
A Noted American women 
B American inventions and inventors 
C Agriculture in America : its promoters 
D Some noted philanthropy 
E Organizers of industry 
F American artists 

REQUIRED READINGS FOR HISTORY CLASSES 
September igii-June 1912 and September igi2-June 1913 

The defects of that method of history teaching which is con- 
fined to the textbook, the recitation and examination have been 



HISTORY 289 

evident for many years. The revision committee has convincing 
proof, obtained from hundreds of high school graduates, that 
this narrow method of history teaching not only does not give 
the culture that may reasonably be expected from the study of 
the subject, but fails to make the information gained of much 
practical value. The pupil who leaves the high school, un- 
trained in the use of maps, of reference books, of library and of 
notebook and without some taste, however small, for historic 
literature, has substantially failed in history no matter how well 
be may be prepared for examinations. 

To secure a minimum amount of historic reading the follow- 
ing lists have been made. In general only selections recom- 
mended by competent teachers have been listed. Historic fiction 
has been largely excluded, not because it is least valuable, but 
because there is no consensus of opinion in regard to its proper 
use. 

These lists, however, are tentative and will be revised at the 
end of two years to accord with the favor and the criticisms 
that they meet. Every history teacher therefore is earnestly in- 
vited to test the value of these readings, to note whether each 
reading arouses interest and questionings, whether the short 
selections in a given book induce a larger amount of reading 
than is required. 

The revision committee also seeks advice in regard to the 
proper number of readings to be assigned for each year and 
whether long or short selections are preferable. 

It should be clearly understood that no cjuestions calling for 
minute details will be asked in examinations on these readings. 
Readings are to be used as readings, not as textbook lessons. In 
the first year of history study in the high school, pupils may 
need much instruction in regard to the use of the readings ; but 
later they should be able to connect each reading with the his- 
tory studied as to one or more important points. If they are 
not able to do this without assistance from the teacher, it may 
fairly be inferred that the selection is, in some way, unsuitable. 

Communications in regard to these readings should be ad- 
dressed to the Second Assistant Commissioner of Education, 
Albany, N. Y. 



290 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Required readings in ancient history 
1911-12 

Questions will be set on the literature assigned rather than 
on the topic. Questions calling for minute details will not be 
asked. 

Eight books to be read. 

Group I. One of the following: 

Ulysses among the Phaeacians 
Bryant. Translation of Homer's Odyssey, bks VI, VII. 

Students ed. Houghton $1 

Riverside Lit. Ser. Houghton, paper iSc 
Butcher & Lang. Prose Translation of Homer's Odyssey. 

bks VI, VII. Macmillan, paper 25c; cloth 80c 

Group 2. One of the following: 

Marathon and Thermopylae 
Fling. A Source Book of Greek History, p. 99-117. Heath $i 

Marathon 
Creary's Fifteen Decisive Battles. Harper $1 

Group 3. One of the following: 

Public life of the Greek citizen 

Mahaffy. Old Greek Life. (History Primer) p. 62-80. Amer. 
Bk Co. 35c 

Tucker. Life in Ancient Athens, ch. X, XIII, XIV. Mac- 
millan $1.25 

Group 4. One of the following: 

Alexander at Opis and Susa 
Wheeler. Alexander the Great, p. 473-85. Putnam $1.50 

The life of Alexander 
White. Plutarch for Boys and Girls. Putnam $1.75 
Plutarch. Alexander the Great. (Riverside Lit. Ser.) Hough- 
ton 15c 

Group 5. One of the following: 

The Roman character and daily life 
Wilkins. Roman Antiquities. (History Primer) p. 5-15, 
32-49. Am. Bk Co. 35c 

Roman life and society 
Munro. Source Book of Roman History, p. 193-216. Heath $1 



Note. See page 490 for addresses of publishers. 



HISTORY 291 

Group 6. One of the following: 

Children and education 

Johnston. Private Life of the Romans, p. 67-86. Scott, Fores- 
man $1.50 
Botsford. Story of Rome. p. 136-57. Macmillan 90c 
Church. Roman Life in the Days of Cicero. Macmillan 50c 

Group 7. One of the following: 

Julius Caesar 

White. Plutarch for Boys and Girls 

Munro. Source Book of Roman History, p. 131-37 

Botsford. Story of Rome. p. 199-218 

Group 8. One of the following: 

Tiberius Gracchus 

Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla, ch. 2. Scribner $1 ; 

Longmans $1 
Botsford. Story of Rome. p. 159-66 

Required readings in ancient history 
1912-13 

I The Isle of the Cyclops 

Bryant or Butcher & Lang. Translation of Homer's Odyssey, 
bk IX 

2 The Empire of Persia 

Wheeler. Alexander the Great, p. 190-200 

or 

Church. Stories from Herodotus. (Eng. Classics Ser.) Mer- 
rill 25c; Dbdd $1.25 

3 The Greek and his property 

Mahaffy. Old Greek Life. (History Primer) p. 25-45 

or 

Tucketo Life in Ancient Athens, ch. IV. Macmillan $1.25 
19 



292 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

4 The Roman zvorld in Caesar's time 
Fowler. Julius Caesar, p. 41-52. Putnam $1.50 

or 
Froude. Caesar. Scribner $1.50 

or 
Munrq. Source Book of Roman- History, p. 119-42 

or 
Church. Roman Life in the Days of Cicero 

5 Dependents, slaves and clients 
Johnston. Private Life of the Romans, p. 87-116 

or 

Munro. Source Book of Roman History, p. 179-92 

and 
Tucker. Life in- Ancient Athens, ch. IV 

6 Early Christianity 
Munro. Source Book of Roman- History, p. 164-73 

or 
Botsford. Story of Rome. p. 265-74, 291-95 

7 The Romans daily life 
Wilkins. Roman Antiquities. (History Primer) p. 32-49 

or 
Shumway. A Day in Ancient Rome. Heath, cloth 75c; 
paper 30c 

8 Antecedents of the revolution 

Beesly. The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla, ch. I 

or 
Botsford. Story of Rome. ch. VII 

Required readings in English history 
1911-12 

I Kipling. Puck of Pook's Hill. Doubleday $1.50 

or 
Cook. Asser's Life of King Alfred. Ginn 50c 

2 The Friars 
Jessopp. The Coming of the Friars, ch. I. Putnam $1.25 

or 

Magna Charta 
Hill. Liberty Documents, p. 9-33. Longmans $2 



HISTORY 293 

3 The Battle of Crecy 
Froissart 
Four Medieval Chroniclers, p. 11-17. (Eng. Classics Ser.) Mer- 
rill, paper 12c 

or 
The Hundred Years War 
Ogg. Source Book of Medieval History, p. 417-39. Amer. Bk 
Co. $1.50 

or 
Rolfe. Tales from English History. p. 19-38. Amer. Bk 
Co. 50c 

4 England after the Armada 
Creighton. The Age of Elizabeth, p. 192-201. Scribner $1 

or 
Rolfe. Tales from English History, p. 45-87 

or 
Early reformation period 
University of Pennsylvania. Translations and Reprints No. i. 
Longmans, paper 15c; bound with 5 other reprints, cloth $1.50 

5 The history of Plymouth plantation 
Bradford 
Historical Classic Readings, p. 30-45. Merrill, paper 12c 

or 
England in 1685 
Bates. Macaulay's History of England. Ginn 30c 

6 Roger Bacon and natural science in the Middle Ages 
Robinson. Readings in European History, i 460-6 1, 438-42. 
Ginn $1.50 

or 
Jessopp. The Coming of the Friars, ch. HI 

7 The industrial revolution 
Cheyney. Social and Industrial History of England, p. 203-39. 
Macmillan $1.40 

or 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2:67-72. Ginn $1.50 

8 Europe in Africa 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2 •447-54 



294 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Required readings in English history 
1912-13 

I Alfred the Great 
Hughes. Alfred the Great, ch. II. Houghton $1 

or 
Cook. Asser's Life of King Alfred. Ginn 50c 

2 The voyages and travels of Sir John Maundeville 
(Little Classics Ser.) Cassell, cloth 25c; (Eng. Classics Ser.) 
Merrill, paper 12c 

3 The discovery of Muscovy 

Hakluyt. The Discovery of Muscovy. (Little Classics Ser.) 
Cassell, cloth 25c 

or 

The settlement of Virginia 

John Smith's Narrative in Historical Classic Readings, p. 11-25. 
Merrill, paper 12c 

4 Life in Utopia 
Old South Leaflets No. 124. Directors of Old South Work, 
Boston 5c 

also 
More's Utopia. (Little Classics Ser.) Cassell 25c; (Eng. Clas- 
sics Ser.) Merrill 25c 

or 

The Pilgrim Fathers 
Green. Short History of the English People, p. 507-13 

5 England in 1685 
Bates. Macaulay's History of England, ch. III. Ginn 30c 

6 Warren Hastings 
Macaulay. Warren Hastings. (Harper's School Classics Ser.) 
Amer. Bk Co. 30c; (Eng. Classic Ser.) Macmillan 40c; 
(Little Classics Ser.) Cassell 25c; Merrill, paper 15c 

7 The factory system 
Cheyney. Industrial and Social History of England, p. 240-62. 
Macmillan $1.40 

or 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
1 :62-67 



HISTORY 295 

8 The peace movement 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2 :458-66 

or 

The war against poverty 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2 :478-88 

Required readings in modern history, part I 
igii-i2 

I Jack at all trades 

Mason. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, p. 139-60. 
Appleton $1.75 

or 

Economic stages 

Ely. Evolution of Industrial Society, p. 3-73. Macmillan 
$1.25 

2 Public life and religion of a Greek citizen 

Mahaffy. Old Greek Life. (History Primer) p. 62-88. Amer. 

BkCo. 35c 

3 The Roman's daily life 
Wilkins. Roman Antiquities. (History Primer) p. 32-49, 81- 

105. Amer. Bk Co. 35c 

4 Medieval authors 

Four Medieval Chroniclers, p. 3-27. (Eng. Classics Ser.) 

Merrill, paper 12c 

or 

Rolfe. Tales from English History. Amer. Bk Co. 50c 

5 The travels and voyages of Sir John Maundeville 
(Little Classics Ser.) Cassell, cloth 25c; (Eng. Classics Ser.) 
Merrill, paper 12c 

or 

The early reformation period 
University of Pennsylvania. Translations and reprints No. i. 
Longmans, paper 15c; in cloth with 5 other reprints $1.50 



296 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

6 The feudal regime 
Seignobos. The Feudal Regime, p. 3-26. Holt, paper 50c 

or 
The ordeal and the feudal system 

Ogg. Source Book of Medieval History, p. 196-228. Amer. 

Bk Co. $1.50 

or 
Cheyney. Industrial and Social History of England, ch. H. 

Macmillan $1.40 

7 England after the Armada 

Creighton. The Age of Elizabeth, p. 161-229. Longmans $1 ; 
Scribner $1 

or 
Medieval trade and commerce 

Cheyney. Industrial and Social History of England, ch. IV 

or 
Robinson. Readings in European History, i 418-25 

8 England in 1685 
Bates. Macaulay's History of England, ch. III. Ginn, cloth 
30c 

Required readings in modern history, part 1 
1912-13 

I The weaver 

Mason. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, p. 41-69 

or 
Ulysses among the Phaeacians 
(Riverside Lit. Sen) Houghton 15c 

2 The daily life of a Greek citisen 
Mahaffy. Old Greek Life. (History Primer) p. 25-61 

3 The Roman's dzvelling 
Wilkins. Roman Antiquities. (History Primer) p. 15-32 

4 Charlemagne 
Eginhard. Life of Charlemagne. (Harper's School Classics 
Ser.) Amer. Bk Co. 30c 

5 Medieval authors 
Four Medieval Chroniclers. 27-48 



HISTORY 297 

6 The coming of the Friars 
Jessopp. The Coming of the Friars, ch. I. Putnam $1.25, 

or 
The life and rule of St Francis 
Ogg. Source Book of Medieval History, p. 362-76 

7 The feudal regime 
Seignobos. The Feudal Regime, p. 27-68 

8 Roger Bacon and natural science in the Middle Ages 
Robinson, Readings in European History, i :438-42, 460-61 

Required readings in modern history, part II 
1912-13 

I Peter the Great 

Motley. Peter the Great. (Eng. Classics Ser.) Merrill 25c 

2 Frederick the Great 
Macaulay. Frederick the Great. (Eng. Classics Ser.) Merrill 

2SC 

also 

Many other editions 

3 The old regime in France 
E. J. Lowell. Eve of the French Revolution, ch. I, II, VI. 
Houghton $2 

or 
Robinson. Readings in European History. 2:409-80. Ginn 
$1.50 

4 The Monroe Doctrine 

Old South Leaflets No. 56, specially p. 14-20. Directors of Old 
South Work, Boston, paper 5c ; also bound in v. Ill with 24 
other leaflets, cloth $1.50 

5 The Eastern Question 

McCarthy. Short History of Our Own Times, ch. XI, XIII. 
Harper $1.50 

or 
The same topics in 

McCarthy. History of Our Own Times, v. II 

or 
Oman. England in the 19th Century, p. 80-260. Longmans 

$1.25 



298 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

6 The expansion of Europe into other continents 
Reinsch. World Politics, p. 3-80 

or 
Europe in Africa 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2:447-54- Ginn $1.50 

7 Some modern economic questions 
Ely. Evolution of Industrial Society. ch. VI, VIII, X, XL 
Macmillan $1.25 

8 The peace movement 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2:458-66. Ginn $1.50 

or 
The war with poverty 
Robinson & Beard. Readings in Modern European History. 
2 :478-88 

Required readings in American history 
1911-12; 1912-13 

1-2 Two of the following: 

Early history of Virginia 
John Smith. True Relation 

Hart & Channing. Colonial and Constitutional I-eafiets No. 27. 
Simmons loc 

or 
Historical Classic Readings. Merrill 12c 

or 
Old South Leaflets No. 167. Directors of Old South Work, 
Boston, 5c 

Early history of Plymouth 
Hart & Channing. Colonial and Constitutional Leaflets No. 29. 
Simmons loc 

or 
Bradford 
Historical Classic Readings, p. 30-45. Merrill 12c 

or 
Extracts from John Winthrop's history 
Hart & Channing. Colonial and Constitutional Leaflets No. 31. 
Simmons loc 



HISTORY 299 

Discovery of the Hudson 
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Description of the New Netherlands 
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Washington's journal of his tour to the Ohio 1770 
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Report of the Hartford Convention 
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IOC 

Autobiography of Peter Cooper 
Old South Leaflets No. 147. 5c 



300 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Lincoln's inaugurals 
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or 
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IOC 

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Sezvard's address on Alaska 
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7 The Constitution of the United States 
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or 
The United States in 1841 
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or 
The surrender of Lee 
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8 The new South 
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or 
The Panama canal 
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XVII, Newson & Co 

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CIVICS 
In a country governed by popular suffrage, where free schools 
are maintained to train citizens, the study of civics assumes an im- 
portance second to the study of ho other subject. It is not, how- 
ever, a subject easily presented to children. Government, like 
the air, is pervasive and its presence is not ordinarily felt. Almost 
the only government of which the youth in the country or village 



CIVICS 301 

is conscious is that of the home and of the school. There is, there- 
fore, specially in rural districts, little apperceptive basis on which to 
build. The imethod of presenting civics, that began with the 
national government and ended with the township, generally failed 
to use even the small amount of concrete material available. 
Civics became too bookish and abstract for great numbers of high 
school pupils. Its study resulted in the acquisition of empty words 
and phrases or, at best, in burdens of knowledge that were unre- 
lated in the pupil's mind to daily life and duty. 

The syllabus here recommended reverses the old order of pre- 
sentation. It begins with what is concrete and near at hand. It 
concerns itself, first of all, with those means, activities and agents 
of government that are local. It aims to connect the study of civics 
with the daily life of the pupil and to emphasize the importance of 
local government because it is historically the source of all gov- 
ernment. 

This syllabus has been prepared then to meet the needs of pupils 
whether in the city or in the country and its use will vary accord- 
ing to the environment of the pupil. In the city, municipal govern- 
ment, and, in the country, the government of the school district and 
the township should first be studied. The pupil should be made 
acquainted not only with the forms and instruments of local gov- 
ernment but with its activities and, when possible, with its agents or 
officials. If local civics has been well taught in the grades, less 
time needs to be given to this part of the work in the high school ; 
but a reasonable acquaintance with local government is essential. 

When once a basis of civic facts and experiences has been estab- 
lished from local sources, state government which embraces most 
of the relations of daily life should be taken up. The state consti- 
tution, as the fundamental law should here be presented with suf- 
ficient detail to reveal its source, its nature and its large outlines. 
The many ways in which the state controls or may control the citi- 
zen should be made clear and the duties of the citizen to the state 
should be fully discussed. Thus the pupil is made ready for the 
study of the federal powers and activities which the people of the 
states have intrusted to the national government. At this point 
history and civics meet. The study of the constitutional period 
shows the origin of national government and the study of subse- 
quent history, including the present, is largely a study of national 
development under the constitution. 

By preparation of the kind outlined, the pupil will be enabled to 
digest his knowledge by classifications, comparisons and generali- 



302 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

zations, to review from a higher level all he has learned either 
of history or of civics ; and if his attention shall have been directed 
to government rather than to misgovernment, he will be inclined to 
feel, " I am a citizen and, with my fellow citizens, a ruler of no 
mean country." 

Preliminary steps 

1 Make a list of some twenty or more services rendered to the 
pupils or their families by some governmental unit and classify 
these as rendered by (o) the school district, (b) the town, village 
or city, (c) the state, (d) the nation, and discuss the relative im- 
portance of these various services to the well-being of the pupil. 

2 Determine why these services are not left to the individual 
to perform ; the advantages of cooperation ; the necessity of some 
surrender of individual control in any organized community. 

3 A brief resume of the rise of cooperative control by the body 
of citizens in our own country as seen in building stockades, roads, 
schools, supporting a church, etc. 

The school district 

A study of the school district to bring out the following points : 
I How composed 
■2 Its boundaries, how determined 

3 Its officers and the duties of each 

4 Its independence of town and village governments 

5 School meetings — annual and special ; the business trans- 
acted at school meetings 

6 Union free school districts, how they differ from common 
school districts 

The town 

I The study of the activities of the town 

a In roadmaking and bridge building. Importance of roads to 
the farmer. Good and bad kinds of road. Share of the county 
and of the state in roadmaking and maintenance 

b The care of the poor 

c The keeping of order 

d The town meeting. Election of town officers. Voting of 
funds 



CIVICS 303 

2 The town officials : the double service of the supervisor ; other 
officials and the duties of each 

Note. It will add interest and reality to the study, if the officials 
themselves will meet the class and explain the nature of their services 
to the town. At any rate legal blanks should be secured from the 
different officials and their use made clear. 

The village 

1 A study of the particular natural advantages or conditions 

which have caused the relatively close settling of a number 
of families in a small area. The new conditions made nec- 
essary by such centers of population : 

a Macadamized or paved roads 

b Sidewalks and curbs 

c Sewers 

d Street lights. Whether under public or private control. Rela- 
tive advantages. Method in other villages. Cost 

e Water supply. Public or private. Relative advantages. 
Methods in other villages. Cost 

/ Removal of refuse 

g Street cleaning 

h Fire protection. Volunteers or paid department 

i Care of the public health 

i Administration of justice 

k Graded and higher schools 

2 Classes of villages ; the village charter, class to which the pupils' 
village belongs. The village officials : the terms of office and 
duties of each 

3 Election of the village officers. Time, and reason for it 

The city 

1 A study of the natural advantages and other conditions which 
have caused the pupil's place of residence to become a city 

2 The street the central element of city life. How the activities 
and conditions named in 3 to 7 are cared for in the student's 
home city ; what official is responsible for each activity ; how he 
gets his position ; how he may be made to perform his function 
properly ; and, throughout, a comparison with the practices of 
other cities within and without the state 

3 The laying out (including condemnation proceedings) of streets; 
their paving and maintenance ; kinds and cost of surface ; right 



304 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

to tear up pavement; duty to replace; sidewalks and curbs; 
cleaning of sidewalks ; traffic regulations 

4 Bridges ; to be studied in the main as roads 

5 Other utilities found on, in or under the streets 

a Sewers and sewage disposal. Comparison of methods 

b Street lights ; how supplied 

c Gas mains and connections 

d Electric wires ; pole or conduit system 

e Water mains and connections 

/ Transportation lines ; surface, elevated or subway 

g Steam railways in streets; grade crossings 

6 Street cleaning; snow removal 

7 In the case of each of the foregoing utilities a discussion (if 
apposite) of public versus private ownership. In case of the 
latter a discussion of the obtaining of the franchise. The wel- 
fare of the community as dependent upon the proper manage- 
ment of these utilities 

8 The rights and duties of citizens on the streets 

9 Building laws and permits. Peculiar problems of city life aris- 
ing from the existence of tenement houses, high buildings ; how 
met and regulated 

10 Fire department; effect of its efficiency on insurance rates 

11 Police work; preventive, protective 

12 The school system; appointment of teachers; compulsory school 
law and its enforcement 

13 Parks and recreation centers; baths; washhouses 

14 Museums, lectures, free concerts 

15 Care of the poor; city institutions 

16 Care of the sick and injured 

17 City courts; civil and criminal; juvenile; relation to county and 
state courts 

18 City penal institutions 

19 City finances : 

a The cost of the services mentioned in 10-18 

b Sources of revenue : licenses, fines, fees, rentals of public prop- 
erty, taxes, special assessments 

c Assessments for taxation purposes. The real estate and per- 
sonal tax, with reasons for growing neglect of latter 

d The tax rate. City rate as compared with state and federal 
taxes 

e Making the budget. Revenues and expenses for the last finan- 
cial year 



CIVICS 305 

/ City debt; limitations 

20 Systematic outline of the framework of the city government 
with a tabulation of the chief officials and their duties, where 
feasible using the city charter as a guide. Officials removable 
by state authority. Classification of officials as legislative, ex- 
ecutive or judicial 

21 Choosing of above officials. City elections; when held, and 
why at that time. National party lines usually not drawn in 
city affairs. Duty of the citizen to take part in organized city 
politics 

22 Classes of cities. Classification of the student's city. The 
charter ; how obtained ; its functions ; changes in the charter, 
how made 

23 Comparison of general systems of city government. The com- 
mission plan (Des Moines, Galveston). Need of fixing respon- 
sibility 

The county 

The county has hitherto been largely ignored in the study of civics. 
The collection of its taxes at the same time and on- the same bill 
as the local tax leads to this. It has important distinctive 
services. Many cases at law go to county courts. Registration 
of deeds and mortgages, probate and administration of wills 
are county functions. Also the main highways and bridges 
are chiefly under county control outside the great cities. The 
county is responsible for the preservation of order. 

1 City counties. Some cities are identical in boundaries with 
a county; others (New York City) include several counties. 
In such cases city and county government in part coincide, 
and certain county officials are replaced by city officials 

2 County officials : duties of each ; how chosen ; how removed 

3 County finances : 

a The expenses of the county 

b The county tax ; how levied ; how collected 

4 The judicial system 

a The grand jury: composition; selection; duties (indictment, 
presentment) ; mode of procedure 

b The trial or petty jury: lists of jurors, and how made; 
liability to jury duty, and exemption therefrom; duty of 
the citizen to serve as a juror; selection of the panel; num- 
ber; requirement of unanimous verdict; pay of jurors 



306 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c Duty of district attorney 
d Duties and jurisdiction of county judge 

e Duties of sheriff; in execution of civil judgments and crim- 
inal sentences ; preservation of order ; the posse comitatus 
f The crime of perjury 

The government of the state 

I The Constitution of the State of New York 

A By whom established ; why established ; how established ; by 

whom drafted 
B Importance of the Constitution as the fundamental law seen: 

1 In guaranteeing personal rights 

2 In determining suffrage rights and the manner and the time 
of voting 

3 In creating legislative bodies, defining their duties and lim- 
iting their action 

4 In creating executive and administrative offices and defining 
the duties thereof 

5 In creating state and local courts 

6 In safeguarding state and local credit and caring for pub- 
lic property and public institutions 

7 In providing free schools and academies 

8 In providing for its own amendment 

II Activities of the state 

The state, the greater regulator of our everyday life, as shown : 
A In its creation and control of : 

1 The school district, the town, city and county, with their 
close relation to our daily life as already shown 

2 The personnel of the voting body, by fixing their qualifi- 
cations, even those of voters for federal officers 

3 The number, kind and qualifications of the elective and ap- 
pointive officers of the lesser units, including the power 
of removing many city and county officials by state au- 
thority 

B In its enactment and enforcement of the great majority of 
the laws which govern the citizen in his daily life, such as : 

1 Creation and safeguarding of all civil and property rights , 
with regulation of transfers and inheritances 

2 Creation and control (save for interstate commerce) of 
all corporations 



CIVICS 307 

3 Special control of all banks and trust companies save na- 
tional banks, and of all insurance companies and building 
and loan associations 

4 Control of all common carriers so far as traffic within the 
state is concerned 

5 License and control of the liquor business 

6 Sanitary regulation 

7 Exercise the right of eminent domain 

8 Supervision of education 

9 Authorization of the levying of all taxes for state and local 
purposes 

10 Provision for certain portions of the defective, dependent 
and delinquent classes 

III Organization of government 

These various activities of the State, as of the local unit, require 
for tlieir exercise the three organs of government: the lawmaking, 
the law interpreting, and the law enforcing; or the legislative, judi- 
cial, and executive departments. 

A The state legislative department 
I The state Legislature 
a The source of the lawmaking power, representing " people 

of the State of New York " 
b The Legislature divided into two houses ; advantages ; dis- 
advantages 
c Composition of Senate ; how elected ; compensation 
d Composition of Assembly ; apportionment ; the state census ; 

election ; compensation 
e The Assembly at work 
(i) Organization 

(a) The Speaker: his election; the party caucus; pow- 
ers of the Speaker ; in the appointment of committees ; 
in his " recognition " of members ; in his chairmanship 
of the committee on rules, {b) The Clerk, (c) Minor 
officers 
(2) Making a law ; distinction between a legislative bill 
and a law 

(a) Safeguards against hasty and ill considered legis- 
lation 
Introduction of a bill — its sponsor 
Printing and publicity 
The three readings on three different days 
20 



308 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Reference to a committee that discusses, may amend 

and may give public hearings 
Revision, if necessary, by special revision committee 
Report of bill by its committee to house; possible de- 
bate, amendment and recommittal to original com- 
mittee or some other committee 

Note. All legislative bills must pass both houses each of which takes 
similar precautions before it goes to the Governor vi^ho may seek expert 
advice, and give public hearings before making a bill a law by his 
signature. 

(b) Legislative committees: majority and minority com- 
position ; the principal committees ; the great advant- 
age of committees 

(c) Majority and minority leaders in the Assembly; 
advantages of this leadership 

(d) The Speaker and Clerk, their services 
/ The Senate at work 

( 1 ) Organization 

(a) The Lieutenant Governor as presiding officer; his 
voting power; influence compared with that of the 
speaker of Assembly, (b) The President pro tem- 
pore, (c) The Clerk, (d) Minor officers 

(2) The course of a bill; similar procedure to that of the 
Assembly 

Bills may originate in either house [see Constitutional limitation 
of right to originate money bills to lower house in Congress], and 
from it pass to the other house. 

Conference committees where the two houses fail at first to agree 
on a measure 

[For course of a bill after it leaves the Legislature see powers of 
governor.] 

g Legislative commissions : joint, or of either house, for 
investigating any matter whatsoever within compass of 
state legislation 
h Powers peculiar to each house 

(i) Assembly may present impeachments of high state 

officials 
(2) The Senate, with the justices of the Court of Appeals, 
the court for trial of impeachments. The right of con- 
firmation or rejection of appointments by the Governor 
i Powers common to the two houses : 



CIVICS 309 

In joint session to elect United States senators, and 
regents 
y General powers of the Legislature 

Limited only by federal and state constitutions ; otherwise, 
may pass any law it pleases. Scope of state legislation 
therefore much more varied than that of federal leg- 
islation 
B The state executive 
I The Governor 
Overshadowing importance of Governor ; due to 
a His share in legislation, as shown by : 

(i) Regular and special messages to the Legislature 

(2) Power to call special sessions of Legislature 
which have the right to deal only with measures in- 
dicated in special call 

(3) Power over a bill which has passed the Senate and 
Assembly : three ways in which a Governor may treat 
a bill ; the power to veto single items of an appropria- 
tion bill 

b His executive powers as shown by : 

(i) Appointment of a large number of administrative 
officials and boards charged with the duty of carry- 
ing out the laws of the state — 18 such depart- 
ments, the more important of which are : 
(a) Commissioner of Excise, {h) Civil Service Com- 
mission, (c) Commissioner of Labor, {d) Public 
Service Commissions : one for metropolitan district, 
one for remainder of state, {e) Superintendent of 
Banks. (/) Superintendent of Insurance. 

(2) Power of removal of certain state officers with 
consent of the Senate ; and of certain county and city 
officers independently 

(3) Control of the militia 

(4) Power to assign justices to special duties 

(5) Power to fill vacancies in certain judicial, county 
and state offices and to appoint a United States sen- 
ator to a vacant seat pending election 

c His judicial powers as shown by: 

Right of reprieve, commutation and pardon. (Boards 
of pardon in some other states) 
2 Elective executive officials 
I Governor 



310 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Lieutenant Governor 

3 Secretary of State 

4 Comptroller 

5 Attorney General 

6 State Engineer and Surveyor 

Election ; term ; general duties ; removal by impeachment 

Executive power of the state divided, or in commission, be- 
cause these elective officials may be of different parties. 
Lesser officials independent of Governor ; in no sense a 
cabinet ; advantage or disadvantage of this arrangement 
3 The State Education Department 

a The Education Department embraces in its jurisdiction 
the entire field of educational supervision and administra- 
tion. It is governed by a Board of Regents and a Com- 
missioner of Education. The Commissioner of Education 
appoints three assistant commissioners each of whom has 
charge respectively of higher, secondary and elementary 
education. Statutory provisions in regard to education 
and state appropriations for educational purposes are, of 
course, made by the Legislature but numerous legislative 
powers over matters of detail are delegated to the Board 
of Regents, and full executive and administrative powers 
are intrusted to the Commissioner of Education both by 
the Legislature and by the Board of Regents. The Com- 
missioner of Education also acts as chief judicial officer 
in all questions of law pertaining exclusively to the pub- 
lic school system. 

b The Board of Regents 

( 1 ) How constituted : number ; choice ; term of office ; 
when established; original purpose 

(2) Duties 

(a) Confirmation of appointments, (b) Granting of 
charters, (c) Visitation and examination, (d) Care 
of the State Library and the State Museum, (e) 
Care of public libraries and educational extension. 
(/) Supervision of academic and professional degrees 
c The Commissioner of Education 
(i) How chosen 
(2) Duties 

(a) Appointment of subordinates, (b) General super- 
vision of schools, school officials and educational in- 



CIVICS 311 

stitutions. (c) Distribution of state appropriations 
for education, (d) Judicial powers, original and ap- 
pellate : interpreting school laws ; deciding appeals 
C The state judiciary 

Has jurisdiction in cases beyond the power of inferior and 
county courts, and on appeal from such 

1 The Supreme Court; judicial districts; election of justices; 
their number and term 

2 Appellate divisions of the Supreme Court ; number ; how 
justices are assigned to each 

3 The Court of Appeals ; judges ; their election, number and 
term ; jurisdiction 

4 The Court of Claims ; constitutional reason for it 

IV Instruments of government 

A Finances 

1 State budget : expenses for 

a State administrative departments 

b The Legislature 

c The Judiciary 

d Prisons ; reformatories 

e Charity 

/ Education 

g The militia 

h Public works 

2 Revenues, from taxes on : 

a Organization of corporations 

b Current business of corporations 

c Inheritances 

d Transfers of stocks 

e Liquor traffic 

/ Property. Latter very slight in New York State ; required 
by Constitution to meet state debt. Favorable position 
of New York State in matter of property tax ; reasons. 
How apportioned and collected 

3 The state debt 

Revenues sufficient for ordinary expenses 
B State control of elections 

All elections, even of federal officials, under state law 

1 The franchise; meaning of suffrage; who may vote; dis- 
qualifications 

2 Election districts 



312 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

a The state one district for federal officials and for major 

state officials 
h Congressional 
c Judicial 
d Senatorial 
e Assembly 
/ County 
g Town 
h Village 
• i School district 
y City 
k Borough 
/ Aldermanic 
Pupil's district for each of above elections 

3 Time of election in each of above districts. Reasons for 
separating local elections as far as possible from state and 
federal elections 

4 Nominations : party organization in election districts ; the 
leader ; the primary ; party enrolment at registration ; the 
direct primary ; nomination by petition ; the ascending scale 
of committes and conventions ; party platforms 

5 Registrations ; why more important in cities than in rural 
districts 

6 Voting : the polling places ; preparation of the ballots ; form 
of ballot ; reasons for secret ballot ; marking the ballot ; 
straight ticket ; split ticket ; election officers at the polls ; 
challenging a vote ; demand for a shorter ballot ; the Massa- 
chusetts form; voting machines 

7 Counting the vote; disposition of ballots; canvassing the 
votes ; certificates of election 

8 Majority and plurality; practice of this State; of other 
states 

9 Election expenses; how far legitimate; sworn statements by 
candidates ; campaign funds ; publicity ; how raised ; for what 
used 

10 Bribery; viciousness of; laws against 

V Comparison of state governments 

Newer state constitutions tend to become much more extensive 
than those of older states (Oklahoma an extreme case). Reason 
for this; distrust of state Legislatures. Wide diversity of laws in 



CIVICS 313 

the 46 states; evils of this; the newly formed and extra-constitu- 
tional " House of Governors," an attempt to lessen this evil. 

The federal government 

The Constitution of the United States at the time of its adoption 
embodied the political wisdom of the ages. More profoundly, per- 
haps, than any other political document, it has influenced the world 
at large. It is the governmental framework of a mighty and grow- 
ing world power. It has stood the test of time and " the shock of 
civil war.'' During the 19th century the world changed its modes 
of life and business more, it may be, than in all the historic cen- 
turies preceding; but so adaptive is the Constitution of 1789, that 
only a few of its minor provisions, to be amended in the right time 
and in the right way, may be questioned. Such a constitution is 
worth living under, worth dying for, and eminently worth studying. 
It should be studied as history in its proper sequence and in its 
fundamental relations, for only thus can the growth of the United 
States into a great political power be understood. The Consti- 
tution should be studied a second time as civics, as the guide and 
supreme law of present national life. 

I The Constitution of the United States 

A Its authority and purposes as disclosed in the preamble 

B Its general scope and limitations [see specially art. I, § 8, 

last paragraph and amendments IX and X] 
C Creations of the Constitution 

I The legislative department : the two houses ; the duties 
prescribed for each house ; the special privileges and dis- 
abilities of the members of each house 
a The House of Representatives 

(i) Its members: qualifications; terms of office; distri- 
bution ; mode of election 
(2) Special powers of the House 
b The Senate 

(i) Its members: qualifications; terms of office; distri- 
bution ; mode of election 
(2) Special powers of the Senate 
c The method of lawmaking 

d Powers granted to Congress : peace powers ; war pow- 
ers ; implied powers 
e Prohibitions on Congress guarding 

(i) personal rights, (2) state rights, (3) public credit, 
(4) the democratic ideal, (5) religious freedom 



314 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 The executive department 

a The President: quahfications ; term of office; mode of elec- 
tion: (i) original, (2) as fixed by amendment XII 

b Powers and duties of the President: executive; legis- 
lative; judicial 

c The Vice President : qualifications ; term of office ; mode 
of election: (i) original, (2) as fixed by amendment 
XII 

d Duties of the Vice President 

3 The judicial department 

a The Court of Impeachment 
b The Supreme Court 

(i) The judges, how appointed; number and salary, how 

determined 
(2) Jurisdiction: original; appellate 
' c Inferior courts, how provided 
D Prohibitions on state Legislatures 
E Guarantees to the states 
F Guarantees of personal rights 
G The formation and admission of states 
H Provisions for amendments : how proposed, two methods ; 

how ratified, two methods 
/ Miscellaneous provisions : definition of treason ; the debts of 

the Confederation; the oath of office 
/ The Supremacy of the Constitution 

II The federal government in its relations with the people 

Delegation to the federal government by " the people of the 
United States " of such powers as they judged to be essential 
for the establishment of a nation. Control of the people by 
the federal government direct, not through the states, save in' 
the case of elections 

Contact of the citizen with federal activities 
A Most obvious of these in everyday life : 

1 Currency 

2 The postal service 
B Less obvious : 

I Taxation : 

(a) Duties on imported goods; with incidental effect 
on price of domestic goods 

(b) Internal revenue; on liquors, tobacco etc. 



CIVICS 315 

2 Control of interstate commerce ; railway rates ; pure 
food laws 
C Still less personal, but with the possibility of affecting the 
individual at any time, the control of the federal govern- 
ment over: 

1 All foreign relations 

2 War and peace ; the necessary army and navy ; treaties, 
commercial and other 

3 Patents and copyrights 

4 Standards of weights and measures (conformity with 
these, however, a matter of state regulation) 

5 Naturalization 

6 Bankruptcy 

7 Property rights through interpretation of the Constitu- 
tion by the courts as applied to acts of Congress and of 
state Legislatures 

III The organization of the federal government 

As in the state and its subdivisions the three great departments 
are required: legislative, executive, judicial. Clearer separa- 
tion of these in the United States than in most other nations; 
comparison with Great Britain 

A The legislative department 

1 The organic law 

The Constitution ; how adopted 

Amendments to the Constitution [for "unwritten Con- 
stitution " see VII] 

2 The Congress : two houses 

a The House of Representatives: number; qualifications; 
election ; term ; compensation ; apportionment to states ; 
the federal census ; representatives at large. House 
represents national idea 
b The Senate : number ; qualifications ; election ; term ; 
compensation ; vacancies, how filled. Senate represents 
federal idea. Demand for popular election of senators ; 
its practical accomplishment in certain states 
c The House of Representatives at work 

(i) In the main the outline of the methods of the 
Assembly of the State of New York will be a sufficient 
guide, but requiring special attention are : 
(2) The power of the Speaker, making him a figure of 
national importance second only to the President 



3l6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(3) The rules of the House; " fiHbustering." "Leave 
to print " 

(4) The names and functions of the more important 
committees 

d The Senate at work 

( 1 ) The relative dignity of the Senate 

(2) " The courtesy of the Senate " 

(3) The more important committees and their functions 

(4) The leader of the majority 
e Special powers of the House 

( 1 ) Origination of all money bills : largely overridden by 
free power of amendment in the Senate 

(2) Presentation of impeachments 
/ Special powers of the Senate 

(i) Ratification or rejection of presidential appointments. 
Executive session 

(2) Trial of impeachments; procedure in impeachment 
of President 

(3) Ratification of treaties 

g General scope of powers of Congress 
Closely limited by the Constitution, but 
Effect of " the elastic clause " ; what it is ; how its inter- 
pretation affects federal legislation 
Enumeration of powers: [see art. i, § 8 of the Con- 
stitution] 
B The executive department 

I The President and the Vice President; their nomination; 
qualifications ; election ; procedure in case of failure to 
elect ; the electoral college ; its functions ; departure of 
college from original idea [see unwritten Constitution] ; 
term of president ; discussion of its length ; reelection 
[unwritten Constitution] ; compensation; law fixing the 
right of succession to presidency 
Functions of the President 
a Legislative, as shown by : 

(i) Messages, annual and special 

(2) Summoning of extra sessions 

(3) Power of veto. Compare with that of Governor. 
Can not veto single items ; " riders " 

(4) Party leadership; control of legislation through 
appointing power and through popular support 



CIVICS 317 

b Judicial, as shown by: 

(i) Reprieve, commutation, pardon 
c Executive, as shown by : 

(i) Duty to enforce all federal laws 

(2) Command of army, navy and militia in federal 
service in time of war 

(3) Power to negotiate treaties 

(4) Appointment and reception of ambassadors and 
ministers 

(5) Appointment of federal administrative officials; 
officers of army and navy; postmasters; and espe- 
cially of heads of executive departments, collec- 
tively known as the Cabinet 

(6) Appointment of United States justices 

(7) Appointment of commissions, standing and oc- 
casional; interstate commerce; growing importance; 
tariff commission 

2 The Cabinet 

a Development of the Cabinet as a body of presidential 
advisers. Term '* cabinet " unknown to Constitution ; 
may advise, can not control president. Importance of 
their selection; their removal from office. Not mem- 
bers of Congress; contrast with British, French and 
German systems 
b Personnel and functions of the Cabinet ; the departments 
of the Cabinet and the services rendered by each 
C The federal judiciary 

1 The Supreme Court; authorized in Constitution; dignity 
of; when it may adjudicate upon the constitutionality of 
an act of Congress. Its composition and appointment 

2 Circuit Courts; number; the justices; appointment; 
number 

3 District Courts; number; the justices; appointment 
United States district attorneys and marshals 

4 Classes of cases under jurisdiction of federal courts 

IV Federal finances: instruments of government 
A Revenues, from: 

1 Customs 

2 Internal revenues 

3 Sale of public property 



3l8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

B Expenditures, for : 

1 Various administrative departments of government 

2 Army 

3 Navy 

4 Post office — nearly self-supporting 

5 Pensions 

6 Indians 

7 Public works 

8 Redemption and interest of public debt 
C The public debt 

1 Amount ; how created ; how met 

2 Comparison with foreign debts 

V Review of federal and state powers 

A Powers vested in federal government only 

B Powers vested in states only 

C Concurrent powers 

D Powers whose exercise is forbidden to the federal govern- 
ment 

E Powers whose exercise is forbidden to the states 

F Powers reserved to the people, and exercisable only by the 
process of constitutional amendment 

G Under what conditions the federal government may be 
called upon to protect a state against domestic violence 

H Guarantee to each state by the federal government of a 
republican form of government 

VI Supremacy of federal government 

A State may not contravene United States law or treaty 
B Fourteenth amendment to Constitution; decides first as to 
what constitutes federal citizenship ; state citizenship depend- 
ent on federal ; naturalization a federal function 
C Citizen's allegiance not divided ; but double ; primarily to 
the United States 

VII Growth or development of government seen in: 

A Amendments 

B The unwritten Constitution 

Ours theoretically a strictly written Constitution ; contrast 
with unwritten Constitution of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland 
Precedents which have hardened into unwritten constitutional 
provisions in the United States: 



ECONOMICS 319 

1 The functions of the electoral college 

2 Incumbency of presidency limited to two terms 

3 Possibility of House of Governors becoming such a 
precedent 

VIII Comparison of the British cabinet system with the 
presidential system of the United States 

A Place of the titular executive in each system : President real 
executive in the United States ; Sovereign nominal executive 
in Great Britain ; Cabinet really in control ; question as to 
which system yields greater efificiency ; difference in prompt 
compliance with popular will ; possibility of antagonism be- 
tween the executive and the legislative departments in each 
system 
B Comparison of the government of the United States with 
that of other nations 
The United States a federal republic. Switzerland and 
Mexico. Meaning of republic. Meaning of federal. 
Difference from confederation 
I Centralized republic — France 
•2 Aristocratic government. No existing example 
3 Monarchy: 
a Absolute. Found now only among obscure peoples 
b Limited. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland ; the German Empire 

ECONOMICS 

The proper teaching of economics like the teaching of any 
science demands on the part of the teacher thorough preliminary 
training, and a well defined purpose to dignify the study, by mak- 
ing it first of all a means of mental discipline. 

The method employed should be, first, the exposition of a body 
of principles through the medium of a textbook, supplemented by 
the explanations of the trained teacher ; second, the testing of the 
ability of the pupils to understand and apply these principles at 
every step by the solution of original problem questions based on 
actual business conditions; third, the application of this body of 
economic theory, when thoroughly mastered by the pupils, to the 
study of the great economic problems of the age, such as the tariff, 
the trust, municipal ownership, the labor question. 



320 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Taught ariglit, economics gives a training supplied in like degree 
by no other subject and is, therefore, essential to every complete 
scheme of education. The training though not less valuable, differs 
from that given by mathematics. The reasoning of mathematics 
is rigid, inevitable : given certain premises, certain conclusions 
must follow. The reasoning of economics is probable reasoning: 
given certain data, certain results probably will follow, for eco- 
nomics must allow at every turn for that most variable element, 
human nature. The reasoning of economics is, therefore, the rea- 
soning commonly used in life; hence the special value of the 
subject. 

Though economics has generally sufifered from too popular a 
treatment, it is well for the teacher to be on his guard lest he make 
the subject too general, too far removed from the life of the 
student. The teacher must always remember that the economic 
world whose basic principles he is seeking is not the world of 
Adam Smith of 1776 in England, but that of the pupil now and 
here in New York State ; that the principles of economics are not 
like those of geometry, of universal validity, but are valid only 
for communities of men of the kind studied and at the time 
studied. The political economy of the Hottentot is not the political 
economy of the citizen of New York State. Teaching, therefore, 
must be concrete, every principle must be tested by applying it to 
actual conditions in the local community. If this be done, the stu- 
dent will not be guilty of the common fallacy of setting practice over 
against theory. He will realize that every theory which does not 
square with actual business conditions is an incomplete or falla- 
cious theory. In order that a sense of reality may be secured it 
is recommended that there be a study of the industries of the neigh- 
borhoods ; that visits be made to local establishments and that the 
workings of economic principles be there tested by questioning the 
men ; that the pupils be required to read the financial and commer- 
cial columns of the newspapers and especially of trade papers, and 
that the census reports and bulletins and the various publications of 
the Department of Commerce and Labor, of the Interstate Com- 
merce Commission, of the other federal departments, of the New 
York State Departments of Labor, Banks, Insurance etc., be on 
file and that they furnish the material for many assigned lessons 
and recitations. 

No subject requires the exercise of greater skill in adaptation 
on the part of the teacher. It may be taught so as to test the 



ECONOMICS 321 

acutest mind, or made so simple that a child may grasp its prin- 
ciples. The ways of approach are many; no two textbooks agree 
in the order of the subjects treated or even in the context of the 
subject. 

It is highly desirable that every school have a working library 
of the latest books, so that the teacher may go into the recitation 
with a full, up-to-date knowledge, and that the pupils may gain 
other points of view as well as those of the textbook and may 
cultivate the habit of studying, from all sides and intensively, the 
questions which come before them. A judicious selection from the 
following books is recommended as the beginning of such a library : 

Adams. The Science of Finance. Holt 

Adams & Sumner. Labor Problems. Macmillan 

Bastable. Theory of International Trade. Macmillan 

Bogart. Economic History of the U. S. Longmans 

Biicher. Industrial Evolution. Holt 

Bullock. Selected Readings in Economics. Ginn 

Burton. Crises and Depressions. Appleton 

Cheney. English Industrial History. Macmillan 

Clare. The A. B. C. of Foreign Exchange. Macmillan 

Clark. Essentials of Economic Theory. Macmillan 

Commons. Trade Unionism and Labor Problems. Ginn 

Cossa. History of Economics. Macmillan 

Day. History of Commerce. Longmans 

Dewey. The Financial History of the United States. Longmans 

George. Progress and Poverty. McClure 

Greene. Corporation Finance. Putnam 

Hobson. The Evolution of Modern Capitalism. Scribner 

Jenks. The Trust Problem. McClure 

Jevons. Money and the Mechanism of Exchange. Appleton 

Johnson. American Railway Transportation. Appleton 

Ocean and Inland Water Transportation. Appleton 

Money and Currency. Ginn 

Marshall. Principles of Economics. Macmillan 
Meade. Trust Finance. Appleton 

Mitchell. Organized Labor. American Book Co. 

Patten. The Economic Basis of Protection. Lippincott 

Rae. Contemporary Socialism. Scribner 

Report of the United States Bureau of Labor on Labor Laws in the 

United States. Department of Labor 
Ripley. Railway Problems. Ginn 

• Trusts, Pools and Corporations. Ginn 

Seager. Introduction to Economics. Holt 

Seligman. Principles of Economics. Longmans 

Semple. American History and Its Geographical Conditions. Houghton 

Smart. Introduction to the Theory of Value. Macmillan 

Stanwood. American Tariff Controversies of the 19th Century. Houghton 



Note. See page 490 for addresses of publishers. 



322 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Taussig. Tariff History of the U. S. Putnam 

Townsend- Warner. Landmarks in English Industrial History. Macmillan 

Webb. Industrial Democracy. Longmans 

White. Money and Banking. Ginn 

Willoughby. Workingmen's Insurance. Macmillan 

Wright. Outlines of Practical Sociology. Longmans 

The following content and arrangement of topics is merely sug- 
gested as one of many ways of treating the subject. 

The old-time division into consumption, production, exchange 
and distribution is now replaced by the better threefold division 
of consumption, production and distribution. Greater emphasis 
should be laid than heretofore on consumption and its treatment 
should come where it logically belongs, first ; for consumption is the 
motive force for production : first comes a want, then the produc- 
tion of the article to satisfy the want. 

The chapters on the industrial development of the United States 
which form the opening portion of some textbooks in economics, 
belong more properly to the course in American history, and, there- 
fore, are not to be regarded as a part of the course in economics. 

The suggested topics for the course in their logical order are 
therefore: 

I Consumption 

A Human wants: their classification; how satisfied; why wants 
increase; how new wants are created and the significance of 
this to the business man 
B Utilities : kinds of utility ; elementary or qualitative ; form 
utility ; place utility ; time utility ; quantitative utility 
Goods, economic and free ; the transition from one to the 
other; the law of diminishing utility; marginal utility; 
present goods vs future goods ; the law of demand, causes 
of increase or decrease in demand; elastic vs inelastic de- 
mand ; stimulation of demand ; the law of variety ; the func- 
tion of advertising ; the effects of -prosperity and adversity 
on demand, of changes- of fashion, of accident ; the law of 
least social cost 
C Productive consumption and final consumption 

Necessaries ; luxuries ; the transition from one to the other ; 
waste; the effect of lavish expenditure on economic condi- 
tions ; waste vs saving ; the benefits of saving ; statistics of 
consumption ; household budgets ; Engel's Law ; the waste 
of American families; the overindulgence in luxuries; the 



ECONOMICS 323 

influence of education in expenditures ; the function of the 
high school in the development of taste; the waste in the 
use of more expensive foods; the study of nutrition; the 
economic effects of cheaper substitutes for meat ; the waste 
of overeating; how a given income in the pupils' home city 
might be made to satisfy a greater variety and amount of 
wants 

II Production 

A Production : its definition, nature and limits 

1 Value, the motive force of production; price, the measure 
of value; the conceptions of value prevailing "at various 
times as cost of production, cost of reproduction; the labor 
theory ; the marginal utility theory 

2 Value as estimate of marginal utility ; the relation between 
value and the cost of production of the marginal producer; 
value, a social product; marginal not total utility the 
standard for the comparison of the value of commodities ; 
normal value and market value under competitive conditions 
and under monopoly conditions; the value of joint products 
as that of a sirloin steak ; value due to quantitative utility — 
a pair of shoes, a matched four of coach horses; value as 
affected by custom, by use of large fixed capital, by by- 
products, by tariffs, bounties and other taxes 

3 Market prices under competitive conditions ; the meaning of 
market; why the market is ever widening; the comparative 
variations in wholesale and retail prices ; the haggling pro- 
cess, the marginal buyer and the marginal seller; the causes 
of the variations in market prices generally classified as 
supply and demand ; meaning of these two terms ; why 
supply and demand in themselves are no explanation of 
prices; the effect of the money supply on prices, of the 
extension of credit facilities (to be fully discussed under 
money), of improved methods of transportation, of mailing 
facilities ; the economic friction which retards the operation 
of the law of price; market price under monopoly condi- 
tions ; explanation of the formula " monopolies tend to fix 
prices at point of greatest net return " 

B The factors in production 

The products of the country are dependent upon 
I Physical conditions 
21 



324 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Labor : number of laborers ; efficiency of the individual 
laborers 

3 Material equipment 

4 Organization of the laborers and their adjustment to the 
physical environment and to the material equipment 

Or, as generally stated, nature, labor, capital, business man- 
agement are the factors in production 

1 Physical conditions, natural resources: (a) land, (b) 

water, (c) vegetable life, (d) animal life, (e) minerals, 
(/) forces of nature 

The special natural advantages of New York State : advan- 
tages for agriculture due to situation and to fertility of 
soil ; mines and forests ; water power ; the possibility of 
electrical power transmission ; rivers and lakes ; natural 
harbors 

A study of the products of New York State as dependent 
upon natural causes 

The law of diminishing returns as applied to agriculture, 
mines, fisheries, building sites 

2 Labor: product depends (a) on number of laborers, the 

problem of population; (b) on the efficiency of the in- 
dividual laborers 

a Reason for the increase or decrease in population of 
various countries ; the birth rate and the death rate ; the 
influence on both of education, of improved sanitary 
conditions, of different social standards ; the Malthusian 
Law; the vital statistics of New York State and of the 
locality as showing increase or decrease in the working 
population ; reasons for this ; die effect of immigration and 
emigration; statistics for New York State 

b Efficiency of individual laborers dependent upon (i) 
health; (2) physical strength and endurance; (3) intelli- 
gence; (4) judgment; (5) ambition; (6) energy; (7) 
perseverance; (8) imagination; (9) mechanical ingenu- 
ity; (10) 'technical knowledge. The efficiency of workers 
as tested by unit cost. The relative efficiency of Amer- 
ican workmen and those of foreign countries [See tables 
of Brassey] 

3 The material equipment — capital 

a Definition of capital; the origin of capital; capital and 
capital goods ; the chief kinds of capital goods ; the dis- 



ECONOMICS 325 

tinction between fixed and circulating capital goods; 
specialized and free capital goods 

b The advantage of the capitalistic method of production; 
the law of diminishing returns in capital ; capital (capital 
funds), the result of saving 

c The chief ways in which capital funds are converted into 
capital goods : ( i ) through the investment of one's sav- 
ings in one's own business, (2) through direct borrowing 
of the savings of others, (3) by indirect borrowing 
through the agency of banks 

d Production conditioned by ability and will to save. Capi- 
talistic production a modern development 

Business organization 

a The system of cooperation 

(i) Simple cooperation through joining together as corn- 
husking or a barn raising 

(2) Division of occupation or simple division of labor 

(3) Complex division of labor within an occupation 

(4) Territorial division of labor 

b The evolution of cooperation : economic stages in the 
evolution of our complex division of labor; their survival 
in our own State ; the causes making possible our present 
division of labor, as transportation, differences in climate, 
ability of laborers, natural products 

c The advantages of the division of labor; disadvantages, 
and how these may be ameliorated 

d The work of the entrepreneur as business organizer, the 
qualities required 

e Cooperation as seen m the division of industry in the 
United States as classified in the census, i. e. (i) the ex- 
tractive industries, mining, lumbering, agriculture, fishing; 
(2) manufacturing; (3) transportation; (4) trade and 
commerce; (5) professional, domestic and personal service 
industries 

/ The statistics of labor, capital and product for New York 
State as shown in the federal census of manufactures 
for 1905. The chief industries of the locality and the 
reason for their presence in the locality. A detailed study 
of the organization of some one industry of the locality 

g The chief forms of business organization 

( 1 ) The single entrepreneur 

(2) The partnership 



326 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(3) The simple corporation 

(4) The trust or holding company 

(5) Organized society. Government ownership 

h The advantages and disadvantages of the corporation 
(i) The method of organizing corporations, the issuing of 

securities, the various kinds, dividends 
(2) The advantages of large scale production. Cases 
where large scale production is not desirable. The tend- 
ency to large scale production as seen in manufacturing. 
Census reports. Reasons for the varying proportions of 
wages and capital to product in different industries 
i The trust problem. Pools 

(i) The trust and the holding company defined and illus- 
trated 

(2) The chief objections to the trust, extortionate prices, 
the watering of stock, unfair competition, political in- 
fluence. Remedies for each 

(3) The advantages of trusts 

(4) Recent decisions of the courts on trusts 

(5) The Sherman Act 
y Transportation 

(i)The chief land and water transportation systems of 
New York State 

(2) The comparative cost per ton-mile of the various 
methods of transportation, by manual power, animal 
power, water, steam, electricity 

(3) The theory and practice of rates. " What the traffic 
will bear." 

(4) Discrimination in rates and its consequence 

(5) The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission 
and of the Public Service Commission of New York 
State; the object of building the barge canal 

k Marketing goods 

(i) The reasons for the exchange of commodities as found 
in differences of climate; of other environment and of 
ability and of wants. The law of comparative costs as 
the basis of exchange 

(2) The mechanism of exchange as weights, measures etc. 

(3) The historical forms of exchange as gift, barter, for 
money, on credit. The transition from the handicraft 
system to the system of today. Why the fair and the 
weekly market have disappeared 



ECONOMICS 327 

(4) The service rendered by the middleman; why he is 
being eliminated by the trust ; the benefits and evils of 
the department store 

(5) The services rendered by government to domestic 
commerce 

/ Money 

( 1 ) The historic forms of money ; the functions of money ; 
the qualities of good money ; why gold and silver have 
become the favorite money substances 

(2) The value of money; upon what dependent; the con- 
nection between the amount of money and prices ; the 
discussion of the quantity theory of money ; the use of 
index numbers for determining a general rise or fall 
in prices 

(3) The classes affected by dear money and by cheap 
money 

(4) The single standard, the double standard, the multiple 
standard, the advantages and disadvantages of each 

(5) Debasing the coinage, some historical examples; Gres- 
ham's Law ; the issue of paper money ; effects ; experi- 
ence with the greenbacks ; legal tender ; our present 
money system 

(6) The bimetallic controversy; "the crime of 'j^)" the 
Bland-Allison Act. the Sherman Act. the Gold Standard 
Act ; why the agitation has died out 

m Credit 

(i) Meaning of credit 

(2) Necessary conditions for its existence ; benefits and 
evils of ; effect on prices 

(3) The chief forms of credit paper as bonds, promissory 
notes, drafts, certificates of deposit, express and money 
orders, letters of credit, uses and forms of each ; book 
credits; the work of a credit man; the services rendered 
by Bradstreet and Dun 

(4) Speculation : benefits and evils 

(5) Instruments for speculation as stock exchanges and 
agents as brokers 

(6) Panics and financial crises : their causes, effects ; the 
chief crises of the past century 

n Banking 

(i) The origin of banks; the chief services rendered by 
banks; meaning of a bank as a manufactory of credit 



328 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

How banks extend credit; the nature of bank deposits; 
the bank reserve and its effect on trade conditions 

(2) The issue of bank notes; history of the important 
features of banking in the United States ; wild-cat bank- 
ing; the National Bank Act 

(3) The State Banks of New York State; branch bank- 
ing; building and loan associations; the chief features 
of great European and Canadian Banks that are supe- 
rior to ours 

(4) Proposed improvements in our banking system, the 
central bank, postal savings banks 

(5) The work of the trust company; of savings banks; of 
private banks 

(6) The functions and workings of the clearing house 
o Foreign trade 

(i) Chief exports and imports of the United States and 
of the Port of New York; meaning of a favorable bal- 
ance of trade ; how the difference between imports and 
exports is made up ; the settling of balances ; bills of 
exchange, how the rate is determined, arbitrage transac- 
tions 

(2) Causes affecting the rates of exchange; the gold 
points 

(3) Governmental aid to foreign trades through our sys- 
tem of ambassadors, consuls and special agents ; through 
mail and ship subsidies ; through commercial treaties, 
through publications 

(4) Governmental restrictions on foreign trade through 
bounties, tariffs, tonnage, duties etc. 

p The tariff question 

Summary of the more important tariff acts in our history ; 
the arguments for and against a protective tariff; the 
difference between a revenue and a protective tariff; 
reciprocity ; the most favored nation clause ; the argu- 
ment for bounties ; the tariff systems of foreign countries 
q Insurance 

Nature and value of various kinds and systems of insur- 
ance, fire, marine and accident 

III Distribution 

The problem of distribution ; the nature of income ; gross in- 
come, as replacement fund and as fund available for current 



ECONOMICS 329 

consumption (allocation fund). The effect of changes of 
prices on income ; real income and money income. The 
shares in the product, rent, wages, interest, profits 
A Rent 

Rent ; various definitions of rent ; the Ricardian theory of 
rent ; other theories ; the connection between rent and 
prices ; the effect of changes in economic conditions on 
rent ; agricultural rent and urban rent ; house rent and 
ground rent ; the unearned increment ; the capitalization 
of rent; the taxation of rent; the theory of Henry George 
B Wages 

1 Definition of ;. money wages vs real wages ; time wages 
and piece wages; theories of wages; the iron law; the 
wage fund, bargain theory, productivity theories ; the 
reconciliation of these theories 

2 The effect on wages of machinery ; of the agreeableness 
or disagreeableness of the work ; of the social esteem in 
which occupation is held ; of the chance for promotion ; of 
international competition ; of irregularity of employment ; 
of education 

3 The labor problem a wage problem ; attempts at solution, 
premium plans, profit sharing, cooperation 

4 The work of the labor union, the weakness of the uniform 
minimum union wage ; the effect on wages of the restriction 
of output ; of the limitation of the hours of labor ; of the 
limitation of the number of apprentices ; of the strike ; of 
the lockout; of the boycott; of the black list; of concili- 
ation and arbitration 

5 The Massachusetts system of arbitration ; the Canadian 
system ; the labor legislation of New York State ; work- 
men's insurance ; the work of the state and federal labor 
bureau; women's wages and hours of labor; child labor 
laws 

6 The wages paid in typical local industries and the reason 
for the differences ; the opportunities in the various trades 
for a livelihood for the boys and girls from schools 

C Interest 

1 Definition of ; why paid ; various theories : the canonist (or 
the church), the abstinence, the productivity; the Austrian, 
the socialist theory 

2 The rate of interest ; on what it depends ; why the rate 
varies in different localities and countries ; the rate on call 



330 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

money; on commercial paper, on long time loans; gross 
interest; net or pure interest; causes of the fluctuation in 
the rate ; the effect of usury laws on the rate ; the money 
rate as an index of trade conditions ; why the rate of the 
Bank of England affects business in New York ; the money 
rate as the barometer of the stock market 

D Profits 

1 Competitive profits 

Gross profits and net profits ; why profits appear as a dis- 
tinct share in distribution ; profits as the payment for 
risk ; distinction between profits as compensation for 
management and as compensation for risk ; the analogy 
of profits and rent ; tendency of profits to increase or de- 
crease ; effect of education on profits 

2 Monopolies 

a Different kinds of monopolies: (i) personal; (2) legal 
— (a) private; (6) public; (3) natural monopolies of 
situation; (4) natural monopolies of organization; (5) 
capitalistic monopolies; (6) labor monopolies 

b The formula of monopoly price " point of greatest net 
return." How each form of monopoly seeks to obtain 
the greatest returns. Methods of concealing monopoly 
profits 

c Limitations on power of monopolies to fix prices, (i) 
Power of substitution. (2) Potential competition. (3) 
Legal interference 
E State control of industry 

1 Methods 

a Through regulation of prices 

h Through regulation of industry 

c Through regulation of profits 

d Through prohibition of combinations 

e Municipal ownership — the arguments against and for 

/ Socialism 

2 Agents 

a Interstate Commerce Commission 

h Public Service Commission 

c State Departments — Banking and Insurance 

d Statutes 

e The courts 



ECONOMICS 331 

3 Socialism : definition of ; danger of confounding with an- 
archism and communism ; tabulation of socialistic enter- 
prises in this State and in the nation ; the nature of social- 
istic society ; its effect on the individual ; dangers and tend- 
encies of socialism 

Revenues and expenditures 

1 Chief sources of revenue : 

a Public domains and public industries 

b Fees and licenses 

c Fines 

d Special assessments 

e Loans 

/ Taxes 

2 The just basis of taxation 
a The benefit theory 

b The cost of service theory 
c The ability or faculty theory 

Ability theory ; proportional taxes ; progressive taxes 

3 Direct and indirect taxes 

4 The shifting of taxes ; the incidence of taxes 

5 Local, state and federal taxes ; kinds and amounts of each 

6 The local taxes, the general property tax, the principle of 
assessment, the assessing body, equalization boards, argu- 
ments against general property tax ; the separation of the 
real estate tax into tax on land and tax on improvements, 
the tax on unearned increment, why the tax on personal 
property is a failure 

7 State taxes: the corporation tax (two kinds) ; the inheri- 
tance tax ; licenses ; the franchise tax 

8 Federal taxes 

a Customs taxes, method of levying duties, the incidence 
of custom taxes, ad valorem vs specific taxes and the 
effects of each 

b Excise taxes, mercantile paper, etc. 

c The income tax, proportional or progressive ; arguments 
for and against, question of constitutionality 

9 Public loans: methods of issuing; effects; purposes for 
which public loans should be made 

10 The machinery of the budget, local, state and national 

11 Tax reforms, chief changes needed for a good system 
of taxation 



332 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

12 Expenditures 
a Public expenditures : deficits, when excusable and how 

met ; deceptive budgets ; need for better and more uni- 
form systems of public accounting 
b The last municipal budget : total amount and a list of 

its principal items ; classification of items according to 
. the general purpose of each 
c County expenditures : tabulation of expenditures from 

the last report of the board of supervisors 
d Appropriations of the last State Legislature : general 

appropriations ; special appropriations ; the supply bill ; 

why the Governor may veto items in appropriation bills 
e The appropriations of the last national Congress : the 

large items ; classification of items according to the 

general purpose of each 
/ Waste of public moneys; the causes: (i) ignorance and 

inexperience of officials; (2) dishonesty; (3) poor 

business management; (4) "log rolling"; (5) public 

ignorance and indifference 
g Economic folly (i) of wasteful public expenditure, 

(2) of public parsimony 
h Tendencies toward an increase in public expenditures, 

national, State and local ; reasons for this increase 



GROUP V 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 

THE AIM 

The object of this syllabus is to indicate the commercial subjects 
which are considered necessary in a course intended to give a busi- 
ness training; to outline these courses for the guidance of the 
teachers who are preparing pupils for the Department examinations ; 
to explain the general character of the examination in each subject, 
and to make suggestions that may prove helpful to the teachers in 
the commercial departments throughout the State. It should be 
remembered that these outlines and methods are suggestive, not 
mandatory. 

COMMERCIAL CREDENTIALS 
Diploma 

Academic diploma in commercial subjects. It has been de- 
cided to discontinue the special diplomas for commercial and short- 
hand courses and to grant an academic diploma with the designa- 
tion " in commercial subjects," instead. 

When the special business and stenography diplomas were first 
oflered, few public high schools were offering commercial subjects. 
Since then they have taken up the technical commercial subjects 
and in a large number of cases have established full commercial 
departments with courses covering a period of four years. Such 
courses entitle graduates who have taken the required Department 
examinations to an academic diploma and therefore it seems un- 
necessary to issue a special business diploma. 

Proper credit will be given those who choose their electives from 
the commercial group by an appropriate statement on their diplomas. 

The State academic diploma is given to candidates who have 
earned 72 counts, of which 13 must be in English, 10 in science, 
10 in mathematics, and 8 in history. This diploma, with the 
designation " in commercial subjects," will be issued to candi- 
dates who meet the above requirements in English, science, mathe- 
matics and history and pass Department examinations with a grade 
of not less than 75 per cent in the following subjects: advanced 
bookkeeping and office practice, commercial arithmetic, commercial 
law, commercial geography, commercial English and correspondence, 
and business writing. 

Shorthand and typewriting are not required, as only those who 
have the necessary aptitude for this line of work should be en- 



couraged to take them. 



333 



334 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

In computing counts for the academic diploma in commercial 
subjects commercial English and correspondence may be counted 
as English ; business arithmetic and advanced bookkeeping as mathe- 
matics, and history of commerce as history. 

Commercial teachers are urged to emphasize the value of a 
credential of this character and to urge all who can to complete 
the four-year commercial course. 

Certificates 

Many pupils leave the high school before they have completed the 
entire course and therefore receive no definite testimonial of the 
work done. Such pupils would surely profit by the possession of 
one of the State certificates which may be secured by passing the 
Department examinations in the commercial subjects without re- 
gard to academic education providing the time requirement in these 
subjects has been met. 

State commercial certificate. This credential will be granted 
to those who pass the Department examinations in advanced book- 
keeping, commercial arithmetic, commercial law, commercial Eng- 
lish and correspondence, and business writing, providing the time 
requirement in each subject has been substantially met either in 
a high school or registered commercial school. 

State shorthand certificate. This credential will be granted to 
pupils who pass the Department examinations in shorthand II, 
typewriting, business writing, and commercial English and cor- 
respondence, providing the time requirement in each subject has 
been substantially met either in a high school or registered com- 
mercial school. 

Candidates for the above credentials must secure a grade of at 
least 75 per cent in all commercial subjects. The standard has 
purposely been made high and this will make the credentials all 
the more valuable to the candidates who secure them. 

COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 
3 Elementary bookkeeping 5 Advanced bookkeeping 

and business practice and office practice 

2 1/2 Commercial arithmetic 2 1/2 Commercial law 

2 a Business writing 2 1/2 Commercial geography 

• a Academic credit will be allowed for business writing only when it has 
been taught by a competent teacher four periods per week for a year, or 
when taught two periods per week for a year and about two hours' home 
work has been required each week. 



ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING AND BUSINESS PRACTICE 335 

3 History of commerce 5 Shorthand I 

3 Commercial English and 5 Shorthand II 

correspondence 2 i/2a Typewriting 

The numbers at the left of the subjects named above indicate 
the minimum number of recitation periods which are expected 
per week of all pupils who intend to enter the Department examina- 
tions and the counts which will be given. 

A student who has studied a 2 count subject four periods a week, 
or a 2^ count subject five periods a week, for half a year, may 
be admitted to the examination regularly. 

Two 2^ count subjects may be carried throughout the year. For 
example, commercial law and commercial geography could be taken 
at the same time, the former coming twice a week the first semes- 
ter and the latter three times, and vice versa the second semester. 

Credentials should be claimed. Commercial and shorthand 
credentials, when earned, should be promptly claimed by the 
schools. 

ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING AND BUSINESS PRACTICE 

The subject 

The object of this first year's work is ( i) to lay a soHd foundation 
for the study of advanced bookkeeping; (2) to give the pupil a 
thorough knowledge of the fundamental principles of bookkeeping 
and thus make it possible for those who can not continue in school 
longer than this year to take up the work of an assistant book- 
keeper in any well organized office, or to take charge of a simple 
set of books. 

Simple theory work should be given first, adding business prac- 
tice after a proper groundwork in the principles of debit and credit 
has been laid. 

The course may be divided into two parts as follows : 
I Theoretical bookkeeping 

1 Business transactions, their origin and nature 

2 Definitions and simple principles of debit and credit 

3 Use of following books: 
a Daybook- journal 

a Academic credit will be allowed for typewriting only when the pupil has 
had instruction by a competent teacher five periods per week for one year. 



336 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

h Cashbook 
c Ledger 
d Check book 
e Bank pass book 

II Business practice 

This outline is exhaustive and is intended as suggestive only. It is 
not expected that pupils will be familiar with every form given under 
each heading, but that they will be familiar with all of the common 
forms. 

I Business forms and papers 

a Orders : definition, use, C. O. D., by freight, by express, 
acknowledgments of, checking up, fiHng 

h Bills and invoices : definition, use, trade discount, cash dis- 
count, C. O. D., receipted, extensions, terms 

c Receipts : definition, use, covering definite payments, general, 
in part, in full, in full of all demands, canceled checks, and 
bank drafts 

d Statements: definition, use, monthly, itemized covering 
stated time 

e Checks: definition, use, blank and full indorsements for 
deposit or transfer, as receipts, use of deposit ticket and 
pass book, reconciling and balancing pass book, certified 
check, cashier's check, certificate of deposit 

/ Notes : definition, use, calculation of due date, stub record, 
transfer, kinds of indorsements, notice of dishonor, protest 
and notice of protest, several, joint, joint and several, 
interest-bearing and noninterest-bearing, discount of, practice 
of issuing new notes to take up old ones, partial payments 

g Drafts : definition, use, time, sight, acceptance, indorsement, 
bank, form of check for the purchase of bank draft 

h Other business forms : freight receipts, bills of lading with 
sight draft attached, inventories, power of attorney, simple 
partnership agreement 

The examination 

The form of the examination will be varied, but the following 
points will be covered : 

I A series of about 15 connected business transactions may be 
given and the candidate will be required to make the proper 
original entries using daybook-journal and cashbook. 



ELEMENTARY BOOKKEEPING AND BUSINESS PRACTICE 33/ 

2 Candidates must be able to post the above entries, close the 
ledger, and make a trial balance. 

3 The following statements may be called for : 
a Statement of losses and gains 

b Statement of assets and liabilities 
c Proof statement 
The six column balance sheet may be used if desired, but it is 
not recommended. 

4 About seven 'questions, any five to be answered, based on 
part II of the above outline, may be given. 

Suggestions 

1 Avoid " learning by rote " by using simple mimeographed exer- 
cises at first, starting with a few transactions involving only cash 
and merchandise. Let each new exercise introduce a new term or 
principle and also review the ones that have been given. After cash 
and merchandise, take up in turn expense, proprietor's account, per- 
sonal accounts, bills receivable, bills payable, and the allowance 
accounts. When all the principles and terms which will appear in 
the first textbook set have been thoroughly taught, give the pupil his 
textbook and let him proceed in his blanks until some new principle 
is reached. By similar exercises present each new principle as it 
comes up in the work. Aim to secure independent thinking on 
the part of the pupil. Develop reasons for each step and discour- 
age mere memory efifort. 

2 Give frequent oral drills on points covered. This will give 
the pupil a readiness and dispatch in the execution of his work 
which can scarcely be acquired in any other way and which is 
indispensable to the pupil when he is called upon to write an 
examination within a reasonable time limit. Remember that drill, 
both oral and writen, will aid rather than retard the pupil's progress 
in the end. 

3 Emphasis should be placed on the necessity for the rapid 
execution of the work of recording entries, making out business 
papers, etc. when they are thoroughly understood. 

4 Impress upon the student the fact that it is the man who can 
execute rapidly who is in demand and that in this subject he is 
given an opportunity to acquire this highly prized ability. 

5 Frequent short review sets should be given and a proper time 
limit should be set on some of them so that the pupil will be able 
to do his best work on an examination where a definite time is 
stated. 



338 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

6 Give frequent reviews in making the business statements using 
trial balances or ledgers mimeographed and furnished the pupil. - 

7 Drill on closing the ledger in order that both accuracy and 
dispatch may be acquired. 

8 Ruling exercises should be given. These may include single 
and double red lines, and the forms of the various books used in 
this course. 

9 Additional drill should be given in each arithmetical problem 
which the pupil encounters in his bookkeeping work. 

10 Exercises to be done at home should be given students in this 
subject. Much additional drill can be secured in this way. 

11 Do not permit pupils to copy their work in their blanks. Re- 
quire original work. 

12 Drill in correcting errors is quite as essential as any other 
lesson in bookkeeping. 

13 Emphasize the importance of clear, complete and concise 
explanatory statements in connection with each original entry. This 
test should be continually applied. Would a stranger understand 
from your record just what has taken place? 

14 The distinction between " interest and discount " and " mer- 
chandise discount " should be thoroughly explained. 

15 When the business practice begins have all bank pass books 
properly kept and written up. This work may be done either by 
the teacher or by pupils selected by the teacher, but in no case 
should each pupil write up his own pass book. 

16 Even though terms which are not used in the business world 
are used in the schoolroom for pedagogic reasons, it is necessary 
that the terms used by business men and accountants should be thor- 
oughly understood. For instance in nearly all books " loss and 
gain " is used for " profit and loss " and " resources and liabilities " 
for " assets and liabilities." Such apparent dififerences should be 
thoroughly understood by the pupil not merely because they may 
be used on examination, but because he will surely hear them used 
by business men. 

17 In posting post all debits first and then all credits. This will 
tend to lessen the chance of error in posting. Errors in posting 
may be avoided by cutting a blotter in the form indicated below 
and writing "' debit " on one side and " credit " on the other. Keep 
the blotter under the hand while posting and only the correct side 
of the account will be exposed if the proper word on the blotter 
is up. 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC 



339 





24 


289 


62 




II i 1 




Dec. 


2 






Debit 





1 8 Methods of proving posting and locating errors in the trial 
balance should receive considerable attention, as errors in posting 
and consequent difficulty with the trial balance use up a large 
amount of the pupils' time. Insist on the use of some kind of a 
check mark when reviewing posting. 

19 Folio numbers should be used in all posting. Insistence on 
this point will save the pupil much time. 

20 Insist on neatness and the best penmanship of which the 
pupil is capable in all bookkeeping work. 



COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC 
The subject 

This course is intended to cover all the principles of arithmetic. 
It is expected that only a brief review of elementary principles will 
be necessary. 

Methods approved by the best business usage should be used in 
all work in arithmetic. Absolute accuracy must be insisted upon 
as this is the standard set by all good business men. 

While the course should be as comprehensive as time and pre- 
vious training of the class will permit it must be remembered that 
efficiency in the handling of such arithmetical problems as are 
likely to come into the experience of the pupil in his first business 
connection is the chief aim of the course. With this in mind special 
attention should be given to the following subjects : 

Fractions — with special reference to aliquot parts, using only 
possible fractions when handling weights and measures, eliminating 
such incorrect expressions as "3/17 of a pound" and " 5/13 of a 
foot." 

Denominate numbers — giving special attention to such com- 
monly used tables as linear measure, square measure, cubic meas- 
ure, board measure, liquid measure, dry measure, including only 
such units as are in actual use. 
22 



340 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Percentage — emphasizing simple interest trade, cash and bank 
discounts, profit and loss, commission and brokerage, partial pay- 
ments involving no more than three payments. 

The following subjects should not be overlooked- and should be 
treated with such thoroughness as time and circumstances will 
permit : insurance, stocks and bonds, taxes, duties, exchange and the 
approximate English equivalents of such units of the metric system 
as meter, liter and gram and of such units of value as pound, 
franc and mark. 

The examination 

The examination in this subject may cover the entire subject as 
outlined above. Only such problems as are of common occurrence 
in business will be included in this test and no catch problems will 
be given. 

The pupil's general knowledge of arithmetic and his ability to 
get correct results quickly will be tested. 

In the speed test no incorrect answer will be allowed credit. Not 
more than one half credit will be allowed an incorrect answer in 
the remainder of the examination, if the error was made in any of 
the four fundamental operations.. Only accurate work is of any 
value in the business office. 

Questions on methods of verification and checking may be in- 
cluded in the examination. 

The candidate's ability in rapid computation may be tested by 
problems in additio'n ; multiplication using nor some multiple of 
II as the multiplier; aliquot parts of $i ; simple interest at 6% by 
the short methad ; simple fractions, and percentage. 

Papers may be rejected because of carelessness and lack of 
method in the arrangement of the work, or credits may be deducted 
for such evidences of carelessness. 

Suggestions 

1 Rapid calculation in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
interest and discount should be a daily exercise. The aim in each 
exercise should be accuracy first and speed second. Horizontal 
addition should receive attention. 

2 Invoices, notes, drafts, and other forms should be used in the 
rapid calculation work as far as possible. 

3 While practice in setting down problems rapidly should not be 
neglected, prepared examples should be used largely, to give the 
pupil the largest possible quantity of practice in calculation. 



BUSINESS WRITING 34I 

4 Only such short cuts as are of practical value should be 
taught. 

5 When local conditions require it, place special emphasis on any 
class of arithmetical computations which seem to be common 
enough in the community to justify such special attention. 

6 The teacher should cultivate the acquaintance of first-class 
masons, contractors, carpenters, plumbers, lumber manufacturers, 
painters and paper hangers, architects, and bankers, and learn from 
them just how they handle the practical problems which confront 
them in their daily work. Learn to consult the expert instead of a 
textbook whenever possible. Students may be required frequently 
to test their methods by this practical means. Original and interest- 
ing problems may. be secured from the above named men for special 
drill. 

7 Pupils should be urged to bring to class any problems in car- 
peting, papering, masonry, lumber measurement, etc., which may 
come to their attention. 

8 Mathematical reasoning, not memorizing of rules and prin- 
ciples, should be the aim of all work in this subject. 

9 Teachers are urged to get outside of the book as much as 
possible. Make up original problems daily, using the schoolroom, 
desks, boxes and all available material to make the work seem 
practical. 

10 Books without answers are suggested. 

11 Drill is the only sure way of giving the pupil facility in the 
handling of arithmetical problems. Do not be content with merely 
having the work understood but drill until it becomes a part of the 
pupil. 

12 It is urged that mental arithmetic receive more attention than 
teachers have been accustomed to give it. 

13 Analysis and explanations should not be required "except when 
new subjects are taken up. Time can thus be saved for drill in 
rapid, accurate work. If the pupils give correct results in class 
drill, the teacher may rest assured that a correct analytical process 
has taken place in the mind. Repeating this process with the 
tongue is not necessary. 

BUSINESS WRITING 
The subject 

All pupils in commercial courses should receive regular instruc- 
tion in penmanship until they are able to write an acceptable busi- 



342 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

ness hand. The typewriter has not lessened the value of good 
writing. Business men, more than ever, insist that all applicants 
for positions be able to write well. Candidates are frequently 
judged solely by the writing in their letters of application. 

Two academic counts will be allowed for business writing only 
when it has been taught by a competent teacher four periods per 
week for a year, or when taught two periods per week for a year, 
and about two hours' home work has been required each week. 

This course may be divided as follows: 

1 Study of materials 

2 Study of position 
a Body 

b Arms 
c Feet 
d Hands 
e Pen 
/ Paper 

3 Muscular movement drill 

4 Letters and figures 

5 Words and sentences 

6 Product work 

a Forms : notes, checks etc. 

b Paragraphs 

c Full page work from copy 

d Writing practice using original composition 

7 Plain marking alphabet 

An easy style of slant business writing is required. Unshaded, 
medium small letter forms are suggested as those most acceptable 
to business men. 

After the first few lessons home work should be required of 
each pupil. 

The examination 

It is expected that this subject will receive its full measure of 
attention and no answer papers in commercial subjects will be 
accepted if the penmanship is notably poor. 

The examination will consist of one page of writing in the form 
of a speed test. Figures will be included in the matter used. Can- 
didates will be required to write at a rate of speed not less than 
15 words per minute. 



BUSINESS WRITING 343 

Suggestions 

1 No satisfactory results in this subject can be expected 
unless the proper materials are recommended at the beginning and 
insisted upon throughout the course. A medium fine pen, cork-grip 
holder, good quality and uniform size practice paper, blotting paper, 
and penwiper are indispensable. 

2 Select some good system of copies which the pupil can use 
for class work, home work, or both. 

3 Proper muscular movement should receive attention first, form 
second, and speed third. These three points are necessarily kept in 
mind in all practice, but they should be emphasized in the order 
mentioned. 

4 Definitely plan all lessons before attempting to teach them. 
Call attention to the fact that penmanship practice requires a com- 
bined mental and muscular efifort. The pupil who would write well 
must learn to think about his work and criticize it constantly. Have 
a regular time for practice in school and make the most of that 
time. 

5 A liberal use of the blackboard should be made by the teacher 
and a pupil who is backward in the matter of form may spend a 
little time profitably in blackboard practice. 

6 Sit down and write for the pupil as often as time will permit 
and circumstances require. Give some individual attention to each 
pupil every day. Don't try to do all the work from the floor. 

7 In some unusually stubborn cases of inability to form correct 
letters set a large copy and have the pupil trace over it using onion 
skin paper. This tracing should be done rapidly even if the copy 
is not followed perfectly. 

8 Inculcate habits of criticism by having pupils criticize work 
placed on the blackboard by either teacher or pupils. 

9 In the advanced portions of the course, much practice should 
be given on page work, using original composition. Pupils should 
become proficient enough in the use of the pen to write well even 
though the mind is absorbed in the matter which is being written. 
This is the only real test of penmanship ability that is worth while. 

10 After the proper movement is mastered, require some home 
work daily. 

11 Have all home work and class work filed and return it to the 
pupils at stated intervals so they can note their progress. 

12 Put up for inspection all noteworthy practice work. 

13 Monthly specimens of each pupil's work may be kept up in a 



344 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

conspicuous place so that each pupil may not only see what progress 
he is making but also the general improvement of the class. 

14 Give counting exercises frequently especially at the beginning 
of the course. 

15 .It is a well known fact that all office arrangements are made 
with reference to the right-handed writer. and it is suggested that 
left-handed writers should be taught to use the right hand. To do 
this, convince the pupil that he ought to change ; secure the coopera- 
tion of the parents ; and urge the general use of the right hand as 
much as possible. Alore rapid progress is often made by stu- 
dents who are using the right hand for the first time than by those 
who have been accustomed to the use of this hand and have there- 
fore many hindering habits to overcome. 

16 Movement drills in the form of wheels and other shapes 
should be continued throughout the entire course. Permit the use 
of red ink in this work and encourage originality of design. By 
this means interest in movement practice can be kept up to the end 
of the course. 

17 Do not permit flourishing or shading in any part of the prac- 
tice work. 

18 Encourage the use of muscular movement in bookkeeping 
work at the earliest possible moment even though the writing is 
much poorer at first. 

ADVANCED BOOKKEEPING 
The subject 

The course in elementary bookkeeping should give the pupil a 
thorough understanding of the fundamental principles of book- 
keeping and fit him to take up profitably the study of the application 
of those principles to definite lines of business. While it will not 
be possible or necessary to study the various systems used in all 
kinds of business, it should be the aim of the course to cover the 
more common kinds such as commission, retail and wholesale gro- 
cery, manufacturing, banking, etc., in order that the pupil may be- 
come familiar with the widely used labor-saving devices and 
methods. 

In addition to the principal books of original entry already used, 
the following will be included in the course : sales book, bill book, 
invoice book, and the special original entry books which are peculiar 
to certain lines of business, such as shipment book, consignment 
sales book, voucher record, special column cashbook, etc. 



ADVANCED UOOKKEEPING 345 

Pupils should be given a working knowledge of such subsidiary 
ledgers as articulate through the controlling accounts with the 
main ledger, especially the sales ledger, purchase ledger, consign- 
ment ledger and shipment ledger. 

Special column books of original entry should be used to illus- 
trate how time and labor may be saved in modern account keeping. 

The system known as the voucher system should be applied in at 
least one of the sets used for instruction purposes. 

Some practice should be given the student in the work of chang- 
ing a set of books from single to double entry. 

Proprietors' capital and private accounts should be carefully 
studied and the books peculiar to a business conducted by a corpora- 
tion should receive attention. Such accounts as capital stock, sub- 
scription, treasury stock, unissued stock, bonds, reserve, undivided 
profits, surplus, etc., should be made the subjects of special study. 

Loose-leaf and card systems, and duplicate billing should be used 
in some portion of the work. 

The examination 

Ruled examination paper should be used. If not supplied, the 
special ruling called for must be prepared by the candidate. Much 
valuable time will be saved if the school authorities furnish prop- 
erly ruled paper of standard size, 8 by lo inches. 

Among the books used in the examination are journal, sales book, 
purchase book or voucher record, cashbook, sales ledger, purchase 
ledger, and main ledger. 

The examination will consist of a series of connected business 
transactions which are to be properly entered in the books of 
original entry and the entries posted to the various ledgers, or groups 
of advanced bookkeeping problems. 

The candidate must be able to close the ledger and make the 
following statements : losses and gains, resources and liabilities, 
proof statement and abstracts of the sales and purchase ledgers. 

The six column balance sheet may be used if preferred when 
statements are called for. 

Questions in office practice may be included. 

Suggestions 

I No pui)il should be permitted to take this course who has not 
successfully completed the work outlined under the hca<l of elemen- 
tary bookkeeping and business practice. 



346 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 No particular special sets are required but as many should be 
used as seem necessary to properly present the principles of ad- 
vanced bookkeeping mentioned above under the head of " the sub- 
ject." 

3 Do not have a large number of sets written up at the expense 
of thoroughness. One set of books which will illustrate the neces- 
sary principles of modern bookkeeping with considerable drill on 
these principles by means of short class exercises is far better than 
several sets with no opportunity for such valuable drill. 

4 In this part of the course all business practice, except such as 
is peculiar to the business and books which are being used as the 
basis of the instruction may be dispensed with to give a greater 
opportunity for theoretical work on advanced principles. 

5 Bookkeeping problems such as opening entries where a business 
is being started by an individual, a partnership, or a corporation 
with assets and liabilities, should be given as class exercises until 
the pupil has a thorough understanding of such entries. 

6 Special exercises should be given showing the relation between 
the main and auxiliary ledgers. 

7 Pupils should be taught how to make abstracts of the auxiliary 
ledgers. This will tend to show how these ledgers are related to 
the other books in the set. 

8 Teachers are urged to eliminate some part of their text, if 
necessary, to get the proper time for class drill on important points. 
To " understand " the work is not enough; to be able to retain and 
apply the principles learned is indispensable. 

COMMERCIAL LAW 
The subject 

This course should give the pupil a thorough knowledge of those 
elementary principles of law commonly known as commercial law, 
such as will enable him to obviate the necessity of frequently calling 
upon a lawyer for advice, and to know when the services of a com- 
petent lawyer are required. He should be fitted to ask for, receive, 
and understand such legal advice as may be imperatively demanded 
by the conditions which arise in his business. 

No business can be conducted without the use of contracts, and 
therefore, every business man should know the underlying prin- 
ciples of law concerning the various contract relations which are 
required by mercantile dealings. He should know how to write the 
simpler agreements which his business requires. 



COMMERCIAL LAW 347 

The fourth and seventeenth sections of the Statute of Frauds, 
which prescribe the necessary procedure in making certain contracts, 
should be thoroughly understood. 

The Statute of Limitations which limits the time within which 
suits may be brought to enforce any claim should receive careful 
attention. 

Such special classes of contracts as sales of personal property 
and negotiable paper should be given special treatment. The pupil 
must know how to write the various kinds of commercial paper and 
how to make proper indorsements. The relations between the par- 
ties in all kinds of negotiable instruments must be clearly under- 
stood. 

Such business relations as agency, partnership, and corporation 
should form a part of every well organized commercial law course. 

The important principles of law relating to insurance, real prop- 
erty, bailments and carriers, guaranty and suretyship should be in- 
cluded in this course. 

The general provisions of the Interstate Commerce Law, Sher- 
man Anti-trust Law, the National Bankruptcy Act and Public Util- 
ities Commission Law should be taught. 

The fundamental principles of equity should receive some atten- 
tion, and the exceptional legal remedies, injunction and specific per- 
formance, are entitled to some notice owing to the fact that they 
are more commonly used today than ever before. 

The following forms should be studied and written by the pupils, 
using printed blanks where possible : power of attorney, freight 
receipts, deeds, mortgages, articles of copartnership, bill of sale, 
land contract, and lease. 

The examination 

The examination in this subject will consist of questions covering 
the subjects outlined above. Principles will be asked for, a few 
definitions may be required, and several cases will be given as the 
basis for testing the pupil's ability to apply the principles of law to 
a concrete set of facts. In the instruction a great many cases should 
be used in order that the pupil may acquire the ability to under- 
stand the application of legal principles which will be tested by the 
cases submitted upon the examination. 

Suggestions 

1 Select a good textbook and make it the basis of the course. 

2 A case book on each subject mentioned should be in the ref- 
erence library of every commercial department. 



348 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

3 A legal magazine will prove valuable to any teacher who 
desires supplementary matter. 

4 Study of special legislation in New York State on the Statute 
of Frauds is indispensable to a thorough knowledge of this most 
important part of the subject of contracts. 

5 Teachers of commercial law should read widely concerning the 
topics included in a commercial law course and cultivate the 
acquaintance of a good lawyer who can be appealed to when occa- 
sion arises. If a good law library is accessible, so much the better. 

6 Both teacher and pupil should be watchful for current local 
cases which illustrate points under consideration. Such cases may 
be prepared for future use, as they will always be more interesting 
than either imaginary or foreign cases. 

7 When illustrating points by a hypothetical case, use the names 
of your pupils or of other known persons instead of such fictitious 
terms as A and B. 

8 When the class seems to be divided on a point contained in a 
case under consideration, let the matter go over a day, and then 
have the case argued by leaders of the two sides. This will en- 
courage independent investigation and arouse much genuine in- 
terest. 

9 Teachers of this subject will labor under an unusual temptation 
to " tell " too much and " teach " too litde. Let the pupils recite 
even though there are inaccuracies which have to be corrected. They 
often know more law than they can express because of insufficient 
opportunity to practise the art of expression. 

10 Frequent written tests should be given in order that definite 
and important principles may become thoroughly fixed in mind. In 
these tests cases should be used liberally to make sure that the pupil 
can apply the principles he has learned, 

11 In nearly every textbook "Review questions and cases" are 
to be found at the end of each chapter. These should not be used 
in the preparation of lessons, but merely as review exercises, to 
satisfy the pupil that he has done his work well. 

12 Teachers will find it advantageous to spend a little time each 
day in giving to the pupils a brief foreword regarding the next 
lesson, emphasizing the points which are of special importance. 
If this is done, pupils will be less likely to attempt the useless task 
of committing the text to memory. 

13 There should be daily review of the important principles of 
the preceding lesson. 



COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 349 

14 Emphasize the fact that in no other subject more than in 
commercial law is it true that ''A httle learning is a dangerous 
thing." Master definite points of law every day, even if less is 
covered than was intended. 

15 Drill the pupils in the art of definite, brief, accurate expres- 
sion so that they may be better able to answer easily and correctly 
questions asked on an examination. 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 
The subject 

Commercial geography presupposes some general knowledge of 
mathematical, physical and political geography. Students should 
be able to give in a general way the location and physical features, 
approximate size and population, form of government and prevail- 
ing language of the important commercial countries of the world. 
They should have a knowdedge of the commercial activities, leading 
products, routes of travel and transportation, and chief seaports of 
these countries, and ocean and other routes by which they are con- 
nected with other leading ports of the world. 

The object of commercial geography is to acquaint the student 
with the present industrial and trade conditions in the United 
States and foreign countries. It should begin with the material 
near at hand. This local approach will vary with the locality and 
the teacher. 

The following outline of topics is given to aid teachers in the 
study of their own immediate locality and the State of New York. 
The textbook will serve as a sufficient guide when the United States 
and foreign countries are taken up following the study of local 
conditions. 

I Local occupations 

1 Immediate neighborhood 

2 Local political division 
a Village or city 

b Town 
c County 

II Classification of local industries 
I Extractive 

a Function 
b Location 
c Advantages 



350 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 
a Function 

b Needs of the manufacturer 

( 1 ) Raw material 

(2) Supply of labor 

(3) Supply of capital 

(4) Supply of power 

(5) Access to the market 

c Influence of above needs in location of industries 
d Other influences 

(i) Inertia of capital and labor 

(2) Momentum of an early start 
e Comparison of local industries with those of county, state 
and nation as to 

( 1 ) Capital 

(2) Laborers 

(3) Wages 

(4) Value of product 

3 Transportation in local district 
a Functions 

b Kinds 

c Character of traffic 

4 Trading in local district 
a Functions 

b Kinds 

(i) Wholesale and retail 

(2) Specialty store and department store 
c Tendency to eliminate wholesaler and jobber 

5 Banking and funding facilities 

a Functions ; 

b Kinds 
(i) Banks 

(a) Commercial 

(&) Savings 

(2) Trust companies 

(3) Building loan associations 

(4) Insurance companies 
(a) Life 

(&) Fire 

(c) Marine 

(d) Accident 



COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 35I 

c Exchange facilities 
6 Service industries 
a Professional service 
h Personal service 
c Domestic service 
III New York State 

1 Advantages of situation 

a New York harbor, Hudson river and Mohawk valley 

h Importance of Long Island Sound 

c Importance of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario 

2 Chief extractive industries 
a Dairying 

h Fruit growing 

c Oil and natural gas 

d Lumbering 

c Mining 

/ Market gardening 

g Agriculture 

3 Chief manufactures 
a Clothing 

h Foundry and machine shop 
c Structural ironwork 
d Textiles 
e Shoes 
/ Gloves 

4 Transportation facilities 
a Water 

( 1 ) Erie canal and connections 

(2) The barge canal 

(3) The Hudson river 

(4) Lake Champlain and canal 
h Railroads 

(i) New York Central system 

(2) Erie 

(3) Lehigh valley 

(4) Lackawanna 

(5) Delaware and Hudson 

5 Commercial future of the State 
a Development of water power 
h Readjustment of agriculture 

c Development of Adirondack iron 



352 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The examination 

Questions will be arranged in groups covering the outline of 
local topics, and other matter included in high school texts on the 
subject. Options will be provided in each group. 

Candidates may be required to locate important cities, productive 
areas, trade routes, etc., on outline maps. They may also be called 
upon to interpret statistical matter. 

Suggestions 

1 Place a standard textbook in the hands of the pupil. 

2 Accumulate a library. The material should be divided into two 
groups, the permanent and the temporary. 

Standard works in geography, physical, political, industrial and 
commercial, and books dealing with such special topics as trans- 
portation, banking etc., and government and state reports of per- 
manent value, should form the nucleus of the permanent collection. 
To it should be added material that can be obtained from books, 
periodicals or newspapers concerning the commerce and industry 
of the state and the locality. For unbound material a box or en- 
velop file will prove useful. 

The temporary material will include current statistical matter 
obtained from the departments and bureaus at Washington and 
Albany, and from newspapers and periodicals which frequently 
print advance summaries and totals. As soon as this material 
becomes out of date it should be discarded by the school libraries. 

3 Current topics can be taught to good advantage in connection 
with this subject. Have pupils report any items of special interest 
to a class in commercial geography and always insist upon knowing 
the source of these items so as to encourage the reading of reput- 
able periodicals only. Correct reading habits can be inculcated in 
this way. 

Teachers will find Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature help- 
ful in this connection. It is published monthly by H. W. Wilson 
Co., Minneapolis. 

4 Teach pupils the use of government reports, etc. Monthly 
summaries of commerce and consular reports can be obtained 
through your representative in Congress. 

5 In using statistics it must be remembered that they are of value 
only in so far as they serve to indicate relations. Statistics may be 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 353 

used best in the form of graphs, inustrations of a variety of graphs 
can be found in the Statistical Atlas of tiie federal Census. 

6 Pupils should be encouraged to note commercial and industrial 
facts that come under their observation, and properly report upon 
and interpret them. With this end in view the teacher should 
assign particular problems suggested by local conditions and en- 
courage pupils in an independent solution of the same. They should 
visit factories, stores and banks and obtain first-hand information 
for their use. To make this work easy, provide pupils with a card 
of introduction which should state that the pupil is a member of 
the commercial geography class. Business men will be glad to give 
courteous attention to such accredited visitors. 

7 Outline maps should be used freely by the pupils to record 
commercial and industrial facts. Large wall outline maps made of 
paper can now be secured cheaply and to these the teacher or mem- 
bers of the class can transfer the data given in textbooks or on 
small maps in other textbooks, atlases, or government reports. 
Crossed ruled paper of similar character can also be used to plot 
statistics for classroom use. 

8 The stereopticon should be used wherever possible. The 
teacher may prepare slides for class use and many others may be 
obtained from the State Education Department. 

HISTORY OF COMMERCE 

Owing to the fact that few textbooks on history of commerce 
are available at present for high school use, the following rather 
detailed syllabus is given for the guidance of teachers. 

Commerce should be segregated and specialized as is done with 
diplomacy, law etc. It should connect the present with the past. 
As commercial geography portrays the commerce of today, so the 
history of commerce should depict in broad lines the commerce of 
past ages. In preparation for the test the candidate should acquire 
a general knowledge of the origin and early development of com- 
merce; should be al)lc to trace its influence on the world's 'civiliza- 
tion, and should become accjuainted in a broad, general way with 
the great discoveries, public works, inventions, legislative enact- 
ments and other important influences by which the progress of com- 
merce has been affected. A more intimate acquaintance with the 
commercial history of our .own country will be required. 



354 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The subject 

I Ancient 

1 Phenicia 

a Trade advantages 

b Colonial policy 

c Trade routes 

d Articles of commerce 

2 Egypt 

a Trade advantages 

b Industrial development 

c Commercial limitations 

3 Greece 

a Trade advantages 

b Colonial policy 

c Industrial development 

d Industrial expansion under Alexander 

4 Rome 

a Trade advantages 
b Industrial development 
c Transportation facilities 
d Barbarian invasions 

II Medieval 

1 Mohammedans 

a Development of great cities 
b Industrial development 
c Influence in Spain 

2 Charlemagne 

a Attempted industrial reforms 

3 Feudalism 

a Causes of growth 

b Relations between lord and vassal 

c Earlier and later industrial effects 

4 Growth of cities 
a Gilds 

b Fairs and markets 

5 Crusades 
a Causes 
b Results 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 355 

6 Cities of Northern Europe 
a Hanseatic League 

(i) Origin 

(2) Influence 

(3) Factories 

(4) Decline 

b Flemish towns 

7 Cities of Southern Europe 
a Venice 

(i) Origin 

(2) Extension of trade through the Crusades 

(3) Decline 
b Florence 

Development of banking system 

8 Influence of the church 
a Truce of God 

b Opposition to interest and usury 
III Modern 

1 Economic causes of discovery of America 

2 Portugal 

a Colonial expansion 

b Competition with Dutch in East 

c Causes of decline 

d Methuen Treaty 

3 Spain 

a National unification 

b Natural resources and industries 

c Colonial expansion 

d Decline 

(i) Mistaken home policy 

(2) Mistaken colonial policy 

4 Netherlands 

a Colonial expansion 
b Dutch East India Company 
c Dutch West India Company 
d Decline 

5 England 

a Tudor period 

(i) Commercial treaties 

(2) Efifect of the Reformation 

(3) Beginning of naval supremacy 

23 



356 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(4) Trading corripanies 
b Stuart period 

(i) Colonial expansion 

(2) Rivalry with Dutch 
c Eighteenth century 

(i) Rivalry with France 

(2) Bank of England 

(3) Industrial revolution 
d Nineteenth century 

(i) Napoleonic Wars 

(2) Free trade 

(3) Labor organizations 

(4) Factory legislation 

(5) Government control of public enterprises 

(6) New colonial policy 

6 France 

a Trade advantages 

b Effect of religious wars and expulsion of Huguenots 

c Financial and trade policies of Richelieu and Colbert 

d Loss of colonial possessions 

e Effect of American Revolution 

/ Economic causes of French Revolution 

g Effects of French Revolution 

h Commerce in time of Napoleon 3 

i Franco-Prussian War 

y Colonial expansion in Africa and the Far East 

k Development of technical education 

7 Germany 

a Effects of the Thirty Years War 
b Effects of gild restrictions 
c Rise of Prussia 

(i) Backwardness of commerce and industry 

(2) Effect of Napoleonic Wars 

(3) Formation of Zollverein and the industrial revolution 

(4) Rivalry of Austria and Prussia, resulting in free trade 
movement in Northern Germany 

d Formation of German Empire 
e Economic policies of Bismarck 
/ Colonial expansion 
g Development of factory system 



HISTORY OF COMMERCE 357 

United States 
a Colonial period 

(i) Economic causes of colonization 

(2) Chartered companies and relations with the colonies 

(3) Dit^culties in the way of industrial development 

(4) Effect of physical conditions on industries 

(5) New England's West Indian trade 

(6) Hostile British legislation 
b Revolutionary period 

(i) Economic causes of the Revolution 

(2) Industrial aspects of the Revolution 

(3) Commercial treaty with France 

(4) Westward movement ot population 

(5) Financial policy 

(6) Industrial aspects' of the Confederation 

(a) Commercial relations with England 

(b) The Mississippi question 

(f) Causes of the Ordinance of 1787 

(d) Causes leading to the adoption of the Constitution 
c National period 

(i) Hamilton's financial policies 

(2) Effects of European wars on American industries 

(3) Louisiana Purchase 

(4) Causes of War of 1812 

(5) Results of War of 1812 

(6) Westward movement 

(7) Cumberland Road 

(8) Development of the Protective System 

(9) Building of Erie canal 

(10) Panic of 1837 

d Period of industrial prosperity 

(i) Growth of cotton industry in the South 

(2) Varied industries in the North 

(3) Railroad development 

(4) Immigration from Norther-n Europe 

(5) Inventions 

(6) Territorial expansion 

(7) Discovery of gold 

(8) Panic of 1857 

e Period of civil strife 
(i) Economic causes 



358 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

(2) Financial measures 

(3) Decline of American shipping 

/ Period of consolidation and expansion 

(i) The industrial revolution in the South 

(2) Development of natural resources 

(3) Railroad building 

(4) Atlantic cable 

(5) Homestead Act 

(6) Panic of 1873 

(7) Immigration from Central and Southern Europe 

(8) Causes of Spanish-American War 

(9) Results of Spanish-American War 

(10) Restrictions on immigration 
g Contemporary problems 

(i) Federal and state regulation of railways and trusts 

(2) Tariff reform 

(3) Merchant marine 

(4) Pan-American conference 

(5) The labor question 

(6) Building of Panarna canal and trade with the East 

(7) Consular reform 

(8) Immigration cjuestion 
h Industrial outlook 

Discuss current topics of industry and commerce as they become 
important 

The examination 

Questions will be arranged in groups covering the main divisions 
of the subject. Options will be provided in each group. 

Suggestions 

1 Illustrative material will be found in the various source books 
on American and European history and in some of the larger 
narrative histories. These will also furnish further illustrative 
material in the nature of maps and charts. 

2 As far as possible use laboratory methods, following the topics 
laid down in the syllabus. It will be necessary for the teacher 
to connect the various topics to supply the political setting, and in 
other ways to give proper proportion and perspective to the work. 
Such a topical method will be the only possible one until such time 
as a proper textbook has been provided. 



COMMERCIAL ENGLISH AND CORRESPONDENCE 359 

COMMERCIAL ENGLISH AND CORRESPONDENCE 
The subject 

This subject presupposes a thorough knowledge of grammar, and 
in a high school commercial department should be given in the last 
year of the course when the pupil has had training in English com- 
position and literature. 

The aim of the course should be to enable each pupil to cultivate 
a simple, direct, effective style which can be used in composition 
work peculiar to business. 

Both oral and written work should be given. The writing of 
letters and advertisements and the oral statement of business 
propositions will afford an opportunity to make practical applica- 
tions of the lessons in English grammar and composition which 
the pupils have learned. 

The course may be planned according to the following outline : 
I Thorough review and drill should be given in the following 
grammatical subjects: 

1 Agreement of pronouns 
a Personal 

b Relative 

c Demonstrative 

2 Adverbs and adjectives 
a Proper selection 

b Order 

3 Verb forms 

a Complex tenses 

b Agreement with subject 

4 Auxiliaries 
a Shall 

b Will 
c Should 
d Would 

5 Use of apostrophe 

a In possessive forms 
b In contractions 

6 Spelling of 

a Participles 
b Derivatives 

7 Simple punctuation 

8 Use of capitals 

9 Synonyms 

10 Commercial abbreviations 



360 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

II Exercises in paraphrasing and condensing 

III Proof reading and printers' marks 

IV Copying from rough draft 

V Commercial correspondence 

1 Study of materials necessary 

2 Approved forms of 
a Heading 

b Introductory address 

c Salutation 

d Body of letter 

e Complimentary closing 

/ Signature 

3 Business letters 

a Ordering goods 

b Accompanying remittances 

c Requesting special favors 

d Collection 

e Circular and form 

/ Application 

g Conciliatory replies 

h Miscellaneous 

4 Postal information 

a Classes of mail matter 

b Rates — domestic, foreign 

c Postal money orders 

d Registered letters 

e Special delivery 

/ Rural free delivery system 

g Miscellaneous 

5 Use of contractions, abbreviations, figures and characters 

6 Telegrams 

7 Practical suggestions for handling correspondence 
a Filing systems 

b Card index systems 
c Copying methods 

VI Advertisements 

1 Text 

2 Display 

3 For such mediums as 
a Newspapers 

b Magazines 



COMMERCIAL ENGLISH AND CORRESPONDENCE 361 

c Circulars and letters 
d Street cars 
e Billboards 
/ Window cards 
4 General principles 

The examination 

Examination questions will be arranged in groups covering the 

outline given above. Options will be provided in each group. 

The chief emphasis will be placed on parts II, III, IV, V and VI. 

The pupil's knowledge of part I will be tested by means of the 

letters, advertisments etc., which he will be called upon to write. 

Suggestions 

1 Teachers should try to make their pupils appreciate the im- 
portance of this subject, and to overcome the natural dislike which 
many pupils feel toward it. 

2 By the use of practical exercises the work should be made so 
interesting that all pupils will exert themselves to measure up to 
the requirements set by the teacher. 

3 Eliminate as far as possible formal technicalities in construc- 
tion. 

4 The dictionary habit should be formed by every pupil in the 
course. The slightest doubt as to meaning or spelling of a word 
should impel him to consult his dictionary on the spot. 

5 The ethics of letters of introduction, recommendation, appli- 
cation, and circular letters should receive attention. 

6 Read good letters to the class or have them read every day. 
These may be selected letters from the work of the class, copies 
of letters obtained from business acquaintances, or model letters 
given in texts. 

7 Show by exercises how to make a rough outline before writ- 
ing a letter, arranging the points in the proper order. 

8 Put mimeographed copies of letters into the hands of the 
pupils and have them give a general idea of the kind of answers 
required. 

9 Much practice in answering real letters should be given. In 
these exercises the pupil learns to interpret a business letter, form- 
ulate a reply, and incidentally he comes into contact with a good 
business style if the letters are carefully selected. 

10 Promptness in handing in letters should be exacted as the 
best way to teach this important principle in the handling of cor- 
respondence. 



362 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

1 1 Letters with unsuitable answers may be submitted to the class 
for their criticism. 

12 Letters which are especially good should be posted for a time 
where the entire class can study them. 

13 Indicate errors and return all letters in selected test exercises. 
Important errors should be taken up not only in class, but person- 
ally with the pupils who made them. 

14 Refuse to accept letters containing blots, erasures, or inter- 
lineations, and have all poorly written letters rewritten. 

SHORTHAND I 
The subject 

This part of the shorthand course is intended to take the pupil 
through the principles of the system used, and far enough in dic- 
tation to enable him to write accurately in shorthand at the rate of 
50 words per minute and to transcribe the notes in 60 minutes 
either in long hand with pen or on the typewriter. 

In this work the chief emphasis should be placed on the absolute 
mastery of the principles of the system. Speed should be a sec- 
ondary consideration. Any pupil who has mastered his principles 
can with a little practice write 50 words per minute for 10 minutes 
with ease. The examination, while it will consist of dictation, will 
not really be a speed test but rather a means of testing the pupil's 
work on the principles of his system. 

The examination 

The material used in this examination will be ordinary business 
letters and will contain only words and ideas which may be easily 
understood by high school pupils. 

500 words will be dictated in 10 minutes and the notes must be 
transcribed either in longhand with pen and ink or on the type- 
writer in 60 minutes 

There will be four letters of about 125 words each and no pause 
will be allowed between letters, therefore pupils should be given 
some practice in taking several letters without stopping. 

If the pen is used in transcribing, only one letter should be placed 
on a page. If the typewriter is used, single space between lines, 
double space between paragraphs, and place two letters on a page. 

A few short letters, selected by the teacher, should be given 
before the examination is dictated. This will prove helpful to the 
candidates. 



SHORTHAND II 363 

Suggestions 

1 Insist upon English as a preparation for the study of shorthand 
and discourage pupils who are defective in this subject from elect- 
ing shorthand. 

2 Emphasize at the beginning that thoroughness is of first im- 
portance in the study of shorthand. Speed is a natural and neces- 
sary result of intelligent, persistent, accurate practice. 

3 Have blackboards ruled in red for blackboard practice by pupils 
and illustrations by teacher. 

4 For beginning students a medium fine pen is suggested. All 
v^^riting materials should be kept in first-class condition. Tables 
or desks instead of writing-arm chairs, should be provided. 

5 Pupils should be taught to hold the pen properly and to sit 
at the table in the manner approved for penmanship practice. At- 
tention to this matter will greatly facilitate the work of the pupil. 

6 Insist upon good penmanship in all shorthand characters. 

7 Avoid monotony in the work by varying the instruction as 
much as possible consistent with thoroughness. Begin simple dic- 
tation as early in the course as possible but use only such words 
as can be written properly according to the principles already 
presented. 

8 Conduct short daily reviews. 

9 Require neatness, accuracy, and promptness in all written work. 

10 Fluent reading of shorthand outlines is quite as important as 
ability to represent words in shorthand characters. 

SHORTHAND U 
The subject 

In this part of the shorthand course the elementary principles 
are to be reviewed and advanced reporting principles taught. Daily 
dictation should be given to develop speed until the pupil can write 
accurately ordinary business and literary matter at the rate of lOO 
words per minute. At least the equivalent of a full period each day 
must be spent outside of class in the preparation of assigned work 
and the transcription of shorthand notes on the typewriter. 

Phrasing, word-signs, and such advanced shortening principles 
as are found in each of the numerous shorthand systems will occupy 
considerable attention during this year's work. 



364 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The examination 

The examination will consist of two different tests of 500 words 
each, to be dictated at the rate of 80 words and 100 words a minute 
respectively. Each test will consist of several business letters and a 
selection on some general subject, the latter constituting about half 
of the dictation. 

The candidate may take one or both tests. If both are taken, 
only one is to be transcribed. Ten minutes will be allowed the 
candidate to examine his shorthand notes and to select the test he 
wishes to transcribe. The notes not to be transcribed must be 
handed at once to the examiner. Ninety minutes will be allowed for 
the transcription, which may be done either with the typewriter 
or in longhand with pen and ink. 

The standard of passing will be made the same in both tests by 
rating the transcript for the first test more rigidly than the tran- 
script for the second. 

Candidates who pass the examination for shorthand II will also 
be given credit for shorthand I. 

Suggestions 

1 Considerable attention should be given to the reading of short- 
hand notes to aid the pupil in the work of transcribing. 

2 One letter practised many times is better than many letters 
practised once in the development of speed. 

3 English, punctuation, paragraphing, spelling etc. should be 
taught through the dictation material, and this may require careful 
editing on the part of the teacher, of all matter selected for dicta- 
tion purposes. 

4 Valuable information may be imparted by a painstaking selec- 
tion of all matter dictated. 

5 Each pupil should be required to keep a " correction book " 
in which all errors made by him are corrected and the corrected 
forms practised until he is sure the mistake will not occur again. 

6 Continue to review principles throughout the entire course. 

7 Suggestions 5, 6, 9, 10, under shorthand I are equally ap- 
plicable to shorthand II. 

8 A medium hard pencil, kept well sharpened, may be used in 
advanced dictation. Practice with both pen and pencil should be 
required. 



TYPEWRITING 365 

TYPEWRITING 

The subject 

First year's work 

1 Mechanism of the machine 

2 Care of the machine 

3 Four-finger method of operating 

4 Word and sentence practice 

5 Different spacings 

6 Forms of letters 

7 Usages and customs regarding margins 

8 Copying letters, fihng and indexing 

9 Addressing envelops 

10 Carbon work 

11 Legal forms 

12 Tabulating and invoicing 

13 Stencil work 

14 Card work 

This course is intended to give the pupil a thorough knowledge 
of the machine, fingering method, various kinds of work to be done 
on the typewriter and fit him generally to transcribe his shorthand 
notes during the second year. 

During the second year pupils will transcribe their shorthand 
notes and devote some time to speed practice. Thorough instruction 
and drill in general office work should be given. 

No credit in this subject will be given for periods not supervised 
by the teacher. 

Academic credit will be allowed for typevv^riting only when the 
pupil has had instruction by a competent teacher five periods per 
week for one year. 

The examination 

Only one examination will be given in this subject and candi- 
dates should possess a general knowledge of such work as may 
rightfully devolve on an amanuensis in a business office and be 
able to copy on the typewriter ordinary unfamiliar business matter 
at the rate of 35 words per minute. Only such typewriting as 
would be acceptable to a careful business man will be considered. 



300 rill-: liMXERsn^- oi- iiii': statI': of nkw ncikk 

Neatness and accuracy will be considered in rating the papers. 
The examination will be divided into three parts as follows : 
Part I 

An article of 210 words to be copied on the typewriter in 
6 minutes. 45 credits will be allowed on this part. 
Part II 

An exercise in tabulating work consisting of accounts and 
columns of tigures. 25 credits will be allowed for this part. 
Part 111 

Five questions based on the outline of the first year's work 
given above. Three of these are recjuired. 
Have the candidates write a few minutes before giving them the 
examination. 

Suggestions 

1 Carefully edit all matter selected for typewriting practice. 
]\Iuch valuable general information can be imparted in this way. 

2 Typewriting ability without special training in office methods 
is of little value. Copying letters, manifolding, filing and indexing, 
briefing, backing, and tabulating, should all receive careful atten- 
tion. Systematic, detinite instruction in this work by means of con- 
crete exercises should be given at some stage in the typewriting 
course. 

3 The best ettort of the teacher will be required to get results 
in this subject. Pupils are no longer expected to " pick up type- 
writing." but are taught according to pedagogical principles. 

4 Be especially watchful at the outset to see that correct habits 
are formed. 

5 The pupil should have an opportunity to use the three prin- 
cipal types of machines, single keyboard visible, single keyboard 
blind, and the double keyboard ; but he should thoroughly master 
some particular one first. 

6 Touch typewriting is recommended as the system which wall 
give the best results. 



DRAWING 

This syllabus becomes effective for use in the schools September 
I, 19 1 4, but opportunity will be given to pupils who have already 
completed one year of high school work to secure credit for advanced 
design, advanced representation, and for all the former courses 
in mechanical drawing through the school year 19 14-15. 



COURSES 
The following courses in drawing are offered: 
Elementary drawing 

Elementary design 

Elementary representation 

Elementary mechanical drawing 

Intermediate drawing 



2 counts 

2 counts 
2 counts 
2 counts 



Total 



8 counts 



Advanced drawing 

Advanced design 

Advanced representation 

Orthographic projection and machine drawing 

Cam and gear drawing 

Architectural drawing 



2 counts 
2 counts 
2 coimts 
2 counts 
2 counts 



Total 



10 counts 



Each of these courses is to be pursued for two hours a week for 
one year or for four hours a w^eek for one-half a year. 

Elementary design includes instruction in the fundamental prin- 
ciples of design, such as variety, imity, proportion, balance, rhythm, 
radiation, harmony etc., with special application to familiar objects 
connected with the home, the person and with daily life. 

367 



368 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Elementary representation is concerned chiefly with Hne drawing 
from common objects. 

Elementary mechanical drawing includes geometric construction, 
lettering, free-hand working sketches, and working drawings. 

Intermediate drawing emphasizes light and shade drawing from 
common objects. 

All advanced drawing is highly technical in character and the 
development of these courses is left largely to the individual teacher. 
The general aim is to train pupils in the more technical and advanced 
work of free-hand and mechanical drawing. 

Credit for advanced drawing will be given only in schools whose 
equipment and courses in advanced drawing are approved by The 
University of the State of New York. 

Variations from former courses. This syllabus differs from that 
published in 19 10 in the following particulars: 

1 A new course to be known as ' ' intermediate drawing ' ' is offered. 

2 Candidates for admission to normal schools and to city train- 
ing schools will be required to have passed elementary design, 
elementary representation and one of the three following: (a) ele- 
mentary mechanical drawing, (6) intermediate drawing, (c) advanced 
representation. 

3 Credit in elementary design may be given without examina- 
tion on the certificate of the supervising school officer that the course 
has been satisfactorily completed. 

4 Examinations in elementary representation omit light and 
shade and light and dark. 

5 Schools seeking academic credit in advanced drawing must 
have equipment and course approved by The University of the State 
of New York. 

Drawing previous to entrance to high school. Pupils admitted 
to secondary school work should have received training in drawing 
as outlined in the syllabus for elementary schools. 

Plates. The term " plate " is understood to mean a drawing 
or a collection of drawings on a sheet not less than 9 inches by 12 
inches. The plates are to be made up from the regular class work 
of the pupil dtiring the year, and under no circumstances are they 
to be produced under forced or special conditions or worked up and 
recopied for exhibition purposes. The hasty completion of a nimiber 
of plates at the end of the term is deprecated. 

Plates should adequately illustrate the theory and practice out- 
lined in the syllabus and shordd be retained for one year subject 
to inspection by the University, except in the case of plates needed 
by pupils for submission for entrance to a higher institution. 



DRAWING 369 

The minimum number of plates to be completed in each subject 
each year shall be as follows.* 

Elementary design 8 

Elementary representation 16 

Elementary mechanical drawing 16 

Intermediate drawing 12 

Mounting of plates. When drawings are made on sheets less 
than 9 inches by 12 inches they should be mounted on sheets 9 
inches by 12 inches. 

Unmounted representative drawings should have a margin line 
not less than three-fourths of an inch from the edges of the sheet. 
This line should be made with a medium pencil and free-hand. 

When plates are to be bound, there should be a wider margin 
on the left-hand side of the plate. 

Classroom exhibition of plates. It is recommended that each 
pupil be provided with a portfolio in which all his class work shall 
be preserved and that at least once in two weeks a sample of the 
work of each pupil be exhibited before the class. For these exhibits 
the free-hand drawings may be mounted on cards or, if a suitable 
panel or bulletin board offers, they may be pinned directly to this. 
It is recommended that every drawing room be furnished with one 
or more bulletin boards of cork, linoletmi, or wood covered with 
burlap or denim. 

Lettering on drawings. The name of the pupil, nimiber of the 
plate, name of the school and the date should be carefully lettered 
at the bottom of each plate in representative drawing or design 
made during the term. If the plate contains more than one drawing, 
each drawing should be dated. Plain, unshaded letters known to 
printers as " Gothic " should be used and should measure about three- 
sixteenths of an inch in height. A suggested arrangement follows: 

JOHN SMITH PLATE 2 NOV. 1914 CENTRAL H. S. 

Object drawings do not, as a rule, require a title. Where these 
drawings plainly express themselves, no title should be given. 

Each design is made for some distinct purpose and therefore 
requires an explanatory title. The following is an example; 

DESIGN FOR ETCHED PAPER KNIFE 
15 GAUGE COPPER 

This title should be placed to form a satisfactory arrangement on 
the drawing sheet. 



370 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



Plates submitted to the University should contain, in addition, 
on the back of the sheet, the age of the pupil and the grade or year 
in school. 

The teaching of lettering. Teachers will find the following card 
used in New York City an aid in rapidly teaching free-hand lettering 
and sign making. Cards of the size indicated may be printed or 
may be prepared by having the vertical gothic alphabet and words 
lettered in ink by apt pupils as guide cards for all students to be 
instructed. The alphabet letters should be on the extreme edge 
of the card. The steps in the use of the card should be carefully 
followed, as given in the directions. 

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Suggested model card for lettering plates 

Directions for using " printing card." i Drill pupils in copying 
alphabet and numbers I inch high. To do this cause each pupil 
to hold the lower edge of the card I inch above a guide line; then 
require class to copy alphabet printed on edge of card, full size, as 
shown in the word " found " in upper example. Note that letters 
must be made full width of copy and that vertical lines must be 
kept vertical. 

2 Drill pupils in copying alphabet and numbers, making each 
letter | inch high. Have the card held as before above guide line, 
but allow only | inch for letter height. Copy letters full width, as 
shown in the word " found " in middle example. 

3 Copy alphabet and numbers as before, but make letters | inch 
high by holding edge of card ^ inch above guide line. Especial 
emphasis on keeping letters vertical and of the full width of the 
letters on the card. See word " found " in lower example. 



DRAWING 



371 



4 Copy names on the edge of the card, full size, smaller and 
larger, as above. 

5 To print a sign, as the " found " sign on the model card, follow 
these steps: 

a Lay out margin of the printing on the card with very lightly 
ruled lines. Allow greater margin at the bottom. 

b Draw horizontal guide for the bottom of each line of sign. 

c On a blank trial slip draw a horizontal line \ inch from the edge. 
Along the edge mark four times over the width of the printing on 
the sign. In the first space between guide line and lower edge of 
paper, letter the word " found " correcting it until it exactly fills 
the space. In the next space letter the words " a gold key "; in the 
third space, the words " apply at "; in the fourth space, the words 
" Room 27." In each case make words fill the space. 

d Use this trial slip exactly as model card was used, holding the 
word " found " in the proper place on the sign, so that it may be 
copied. Copy the other lines " a gold key," etc., determining the 
height of the letters on each line, not by the letter heights on the 
copy, but by the distance that the copy sheet is held above the 
guide line. 

6 The above practice should give the sign lettered correctly 
without the necessity of the erasure of any letter. The margin 
lines may be erased to complete the exercise. 

7 Where the words are too few to fill a line, the line should first 
be shortened by the introduction of simple ornaments like those 
shown in the fourth line of the " Clio " sign. 

8 Instructors are urged to have all pupils prepare at the beginning 
of the term a model lettering slip similar to that shown on the 
lettering card as a title slip for plates. 

At the beginning of each exercise, pupils should be required to 
use this slip in lettering their papers. This will insure both neat- 
ness and uniformity. 

EXAMINATIONS 

Written examinations will be required in elementary representa- 
tion, in intermediate drawing and in elementary mechanical drawing. 

Sixty per cent shall be the minimum passing mark in all drawing 
courses and examinations, whether plates or written tests. 

In elementary design, credit may be given for plates alone and 
in the other elementary and intermediate drawing courses, 50 per 
cent of the credits will be given for plates and 50 per cent for examina- 
tion. 

Credits for examination questions. In examinations in elemen- 
tary representation, intermediate drawing and elementary mechanical 
drawing, three questions shall be answered, to each of which 14 
credits will be assigned. Eight credits will be assigned for lettering 
on the whole paper. 
24 



372 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Each question shall be credited as follows : theory, 7 ; practice, 7 ; 
total, 14. 

In estimating credits for execution, the general excellence of the 
drawing in size, placing, proportion and technic will be considered. 

In examinations in representation, unless otherwise stated in the 
examination question, objects may be in view. 

Lettering on drawings submitted for examination. Lettering on 
drawings submitted in examination should consist of (a) number of 
examination question, (b) first and last name of pupil, (c) name of 
school, (d) date. Following is a suggestive form of spacing: 

QUESTION 2 EDWIN HALL CENTRAL H. S. JAN. 1920 

Credits on examination folder. The credits given at the school 

for any drawing examination shall appear on the back of the indi- 
vidual examination folder as follows: 

MAXIMUM ALLOWED 

Plates 50 

Questions 42 

Lettering 8 



Note. Successful candidates must receive, as previously noted, 
a minimum of 30 credits for plates, and 30 credits for examination 
questions and lettering together. 



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Plate i 

Model plan for a drawing room desiuncd l.y director of drawing, high 

schools. New York City 



DRAWING 



373 



ELEMENTARY DESIGN 

The development of taste is not less important than the acquisition 
of skill in expression. Attention is to be directed toward making the 
study of design relate closely to the life and interests of the pupil. 
The subject should be developed through topics relating to the school, 
the dress, the home, the advertising office (in commercial schools), 
the workshop (in manual training schools). 

In the discussion of these topics the pupil should be made to see 
that art is not merely a subject to be studied in the studio or museum, 
but that it exists in good or bad form in all his surroundings, and 
that there is constant opportunity to display taste in the commonest 
affairs of life. 

With each problem there should be a discussion of the practical 
questions of color and design which it suggests. The teaching 
should be simple, direct, and nontechnical to the end that the pupils 
be trained to apply the principles of design whenever they clothe 
themselves, hang a picture on a wall, set a table, deck a shop window, 
or print a commercial circular. 

The development of each problem shoiild be supplemented by 
illustrative matter prepared in the form of charts, and graphic 
illustration by the teacher. (Plates 4, ii, 12) The pupils will thus 
be called on not only to create beauty in their own productions but 
to appraise it and to appreciate it in the work of skilful artists 
and craftsmen. Taste is to be developed by a continued effort 
to choose between forms fine and less fine. 

Emphasis is to be placed on skilful and workmanlike technic. 
The problems should be limited in number and sufficient practice 
should be given to each to enable the pupils to finish the required 
sheets with elegance and precision. Each should be led to take 
pride in the completion of a set of exercises, clean and appropriately 
lettered, for submission for credit at the completion of the course. 

It is to be emphasized throughout the teaching of design that 
the patterns should be adapted — not copied — from the teacher's 
charts or other reference material for the problem in hand. 

All schools not approved for advanced drawing should center 
the design work largely upon the needs of the home. Other centers 
should be studied only in schools especially equipped for the study 
of drawing. 

METHODS OF TEACHING 
Design is first an arrangement of masses. These masses are 
then further subdivided. The forms and relationships of these 



374 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

masses and their parts and the several kinds and directions of hnes 
should be studied and experimented with. By such experiments 
abstract units and other decorative forms may be obtained. Masses, 
lines or units in balanced or rhythm'.c relations produce borders, 
inclosed decorations or continuous surface patterns. 



lillltiOlCffOra 




• V>SJ1T5 6UC0ESTIN0 FLoy/ER FORA^s • DERlveo FROM SQ.UAneS • 

Simple conventional forms of bud, flower, leaf or fruit should 
follow the use of abstract or geometric units in more advanced 
problems of a like nature. 

Each design in its development should be considered from the 
standpoint of (i) the relation of the pattern to the space or form 
to be decorated; (2) the use of the form to be decorated; (3) the 
materials to be used; (4) the process of reproducing the design in the 
material. 

SIZE AND COMPLEXITY OF DESIGNS 

Both very large and very small units are to be avoided in early 
design problems. The more satisfactory problems for inexperienced 
pupils are those which require the development of one bilateral 
unit of fair size, 2 inches to 6 inches in diameter, as the decoration 
for a carved bookrack end, an embroidered towel or doily in home 
center work, or an ornamental stamp or book cover in commercial 
design. (Plates 10, 14, 17) 



DRAWING 375 

Later problems may employ the use of the repeat in borders, sur- 
face patterns for collars or belts (dress or personal center, plate 17), 
for wall papers or textiles and pottery decorations (home center, 
plates 13, 14), candy boxes or page borders (commercial center, 
plates 8, 14, 16), etc. Few repeats, four or five, should be shown. 

THE STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF DESIGN 
The stsps in the development of design should be as follows: 

1 Determination of area to be decorated. 

2 Decision as to form of decoration suited to (a) the structure 
of the model, (6) the functions or use of the object, (c) the nature of 
the material to be employed. The teacher, in determining the mass 
arrangements, will be wise to have all the members of the class plan 
their work on one general scheme. As the work advances part of 
the class may use one mass arrangement and part another, but only 
in the later problems should individual arrangements be sought. 

3 Decision as to steps in the subdivision for " elaboration " of 
the masses. This will include the introduction of the conventional- 
ized units which are to be employed. 

4 Determination of the color scheme. 

5 Completion of pattern by outhning, if this be necessary. 
Criticism. While criticism by the teacher should not be wholly 

left until the end of the lesson, the work should be critically reviewed 
at its completion and time should be given for its correction. Instead 
of being told what is wrong and given some stereotyped formula 
of correction, the pupils should be led by skilful questioning to 
discover their own errors and to suggest their correction. This, 
taken in connection with the practice of developing and reviewing 
technical operations in a number of brief steps, will prevent serious 
error and the discouragement v/hich ensue from a cumulative series 
of mistakes. Commendation should always reward successful per- 
formance; there is nothing more stimulative to further effort. 

Class criticism should invariably follow the completion of an 
exercise in design. The lesson should be reviewed from the beginning 
along the lines which were originally discovered to be essential to 
its development. 

With the class criticism there should be an exhibition of the best 
pieces of work. If possible these exercises should remain on exhibition 
for a short time. 

ILLUSTRATIVE REFERENCE MATERIAL . 
Illustrative reference material should be used in the development 
of each problem offered to the class. It should be gathered from all 



376 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

available soiirces, such as books, charts, photographs, magazines, 
catalogs, advertisements, samples, natural and constructed forms. 
This reference material should constitute the school art collection 
and should be supplemented by individual pupil's collections. 

It is strongly recommended that photographs, illustrations from 
magazines and catalogs be mounted uniformly on charts approxi- 
mately 14 inches by 22 inches. Each teacher should aim to develop 
a large number of these charts, and to keep some of them continuously 
on exhibition in the classroom. 

' CENTERS AND PROBLEMS IN TEACHING DESIGN 

In all design teaching the final aim is to make application of 
the subject to the needs and conditions of the pupils. For this 
reason, four centers are offered in design, as follows: 

Home center. Problems under the home center should involve: 

1 Principles of decorative design in two dimensions as seen in 
all-over patterns, borders and inclosed areas. 

2 Principles of constructive design in three dimensions as seen 
in simple, well-formed utensils and furniture. In schools with work- 
shops, it is urged that at least some of these designs be translated 
into material. 

The following afford characteristic problems : wall coverings, papers, 
friezes; floor coverings, rugs, runners; small articles of furniture such 
as bookracks, brackets, desk fittings; table furnishings, dishes, 
bowls, vases, knives, forks, spoons; hangings, such as ctirtains 
and draperies; lighting fixtures, lamps, chandeliers; utensils, trays, 
bowls, jardiniers. (Plates 18, 19, 21, 22) 

Coincident instruction should include the discussion of house 
decoration, as the arrangement of furniture, pictures, hangings etc. ; 
color schemes, etc. This coincident instruction may be found in 
books on home furnishing. 

Dress or personal center. Problems under the personal center 
should involve : 

1 Principles of decorative design in two dimensions as seen in 
all-over patterns, borders and inclosed areas. 

2 Principles of constructive design underlying the making of 
simple, well-formed useful objects for personal adornment, as pins, 
buckles, jewelry etc. In schools where craft work is possible, it is 
urged that some of these designs be translated into material. 

The following afford characteristic problems in the personal center : 
jewelry, as buckles, pendants, pins; neck coverings, as collars and 



DRAWING 377 

yokes; costumes, as waists, skirts, coats; decorations as shirt-waist 
designs, insertions, laces, fancy buttons. (Plates 17, 23, 24) 

Coincident instruction should include the discussion of color in 
dress, lines of the figure, hats, hair arrangements, etc. This coin- 
cident instruction may be found in books on costume. 

Commercial center. Problems under the commercial center 
should involve: 

1 Simple lettering in various applications. 

2 Principles of decorative design in two dimensions or surface 
enrichment in all-over patterns, borders and inclosed areas. 



CHICKERING 

HALL 




PROGRAM 



An (jxainple of wcU-formcd unJ vvell-urrangc<l letters 

The following afford characteristic problems in the commercial 
center: stationery, as letter heads, billheads, record cards, envelop 
titles; commercial advertising, as posters, cards, signs; pamphlets and 
other cover arrangements ; page borders ; chapter heads ; bookplates ; 
fancy boxes, envelops and other commercial packages. (Plates 5,6,10) 

Coincident instruction should include the discussion of good 
advertising, color principles, window display, etc. This coincident 
instruction may be found in books on lettering and advertising. 

Industrial center. Problems under the industrial center should 
involve : 

I Principles of constructive design in three dimensions underlying 
the making of simple, well-formed, useful objects, as vessels, utensils 
and fvtrnitvire. 



378 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Principles of decorative design in two dimensions, as surface 
enrichment for borders and inclosed areas on constructed forms of 
metal, clay or wood. Schools with shops should aim to develop 
a number of the designs made in material. A close coordination 
between drawing room and shop should be maintained. 

The following afford characteristic problems in the industrial 
center: Woodwork, as tables, chairs, cabinets, desks; pottery, as 
bowls, vases, jardiniers, garden furniture ; forging, as hinges, andirons, 
escutcheons, grills; sheet metal work, as shades, lamps, trays, bowls, 
furniture fittings. (Plates 19, 20) 

Coincident instruction should include the discussion of the indus- 
try, local conditions, trade conditions, art influence in industry, etc. 
This coincident instruction may be found in books on industrial 
design. 

In the nature of the case it is not usually possible for any one 
class to cover satisfactorily the work in more than one of the fields 
mentioned above. 

HOME WORK 

Teachers are urged to require pupils to submit each week sketches 
for at least one design made at home. These sketches should be 
along the lines of the work carried on in the classroom. They should 
be regularly hung for criticism after their reception. The sketches 
should contain the name, date etc. and should be of the same standard 
required in all other work. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books for the teacher 

Batchelder, Ernest A. Design in Theory and Practice. Macmillan 

Si. 75 
Scribner, Arthur W. Floral Elements. vSchool Arts Pub. Co. 25c 
Lawrence & Sheldon. The Use of the Plant in Decorative Design. 

Scott $1.25 

Additional books 
Jack, George. Wood Carving. Appleton $1.40 
Nye, Alvin. Furniture Designing. Comstock $2 
Rose, Augustus F. Copper Work. Davis Press, Worcester, Mass. 

$1.50 
Spooner, D. Cabinet Making. Appleton 
Haney, James Parton. Classroom Practice in Design. Manual 

Arts Press 50c 



DRAWING 379 

Day, Lewis F. Anatomy of Pattern. Scribner $1.25 

Nature and Ornament. Scribner $3 

Jackson, Frank G. Lessons in Decorative Design. (Scribner) 
Chapman & Hall $2 

Ornament and Its Application. Scribner $3 

Midgley & Lilly. Plant Form and Design. Scribner $2 

Lettering and commercial design 
French & Meiklejohn. The Essentials of Lettering. Varsity Book 

Store, Cokmibus, Ohio $1 
Trezise, F. J. Letters and Letter Construction. Inland Printer 

$2 
Parsons, F. A. Principles of Advertising Design. Prang $2 
Andrews, E. C. Color, Its Application to Printing. Inland Printer 

$2 
Munsell, A. H. A Color Notation. ElHs, Boston $1 

Periodicals 

Arts and Decoration. Adam Budge $2 

Art and Progress. Washington, D. C. $2 

International Studio. Lane $5 

Ke ramie Studio. Keramic Studio Pub. Co. $3 

School ArtjS Magazine. School Arts Pub. Co. (10 numbers) $2 

Industrial Arts Magazine. Bruce Publishing Co. $1.50 

Manual Training Magazine. Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111. $1.50 

Printing Art. University Press $3 



DRAWING 381 

ELEMENTARY REPRESENTATION 

The primary aim of representative drawing is to teach the pupil 
to see. He should be led to study the model carefully and should 
learn from this observation the principles of foreshortening and con- 
struction. Exercises in drawing from memory should also be given. 
These should develop the power to render with accuracy any simple 
constructive form in the absence of the model. 

The technical work in representative drawing should aim to 
give the pupil the power to show in simple accented outline and 
accented drawing the appearance of the forms studied. Pupils 
should be trained to arrange each plate with care as to size of draw- 
ings and as to margins. This training is a training in taste. 

As an additional aim, the invStruction in representative drawing 
should seek to present well-placed groups of objects as models and 
to emphasize the principles of good arrangement in these drawings. 
These principles form the study of " composition " in representative 
drawing. 

MODEL COLLECTIONS 

Only models of good form, proportion and design should be used 
in representative drawing. These objects should include cups, vases, 
bowls, pails, measures, books, boxes, tables, chairs, cabinets etc. 
Many models of this character should be collected by teacher and 
pupils and kept for individual or class use in the studio. 

Model stands may be used for groups and for single objects where 
there are small classes. They may consist of boards bridging the 
aisles or may be stands with a base, an upright rod and a flat top. 
These stands may be placed at intervals between the aisles. Single 
models and groups should generally be placed so that they are seen 
slightly below the eye level. In no case should the light come from 
behind the model; that is, pupils should not face the light. 

METHODS OF TEACHING 

Each period should be introduced by a brief statement of the 
points to be kept in mind during the lesson. New points in regard 
to construction and perspective should be developed from study 
of the model and appropriate questions by the teacher. 

Each lesson should be well illustrated at the blackboard by both 
teacher and pupils. Class criticisms, which should be given from 
time to time, as typical mistakes are being made, should also be 
developed with blackboard drawings. 



382 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Pupils should be led to criticize their own work by being called 
on in class to state and apply principles. Class questions should 
accompany each new phase of the work. 

Steps iii lessons. The following are suggested steps in lessons in 
elementary representation: (i) determination of size of drawing; 
(2) proper placing upon paper; (3) determination of main proportions; 
(4) testing directions of main lines and sketching these lightly in 
place; (5) comparison of sketch with model and correction of sketch; 
(6) completion of sketch by addition of minor details; (7) lining in 
of sketch and addition of accents, table line, etc. 

Major points to be sought. The simpler principles of perspective 
should be studied in elementary representation. These principles 
should include the foreshortening of surfaces, convergence of lines 
parallel in the objects, the relation of circles parallel to each other 
when seen as ellipses (bases of cylinders), the relation of the axis 
of the cylindrical form to the long and short diameters of the elliptic 
ends, the relation of the object to the eye level, and the relation 
of one object to another when groups of two or more objects are 
studied. (Plate 25) 

In addition, such attachments as rims, handles, nozzles and 
covers should receive careful study with regard to their relation to 
the whole object and with respect to their individual construction. 
Details such as thickness of material, edges, raised parts, rims, 
knobs and general manner of construction should be accurately 
expressed. (Plates 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30) 

The technic should be confined largely to outline drawing and 
should consist of finely rendered lines with proper accents. In 
accenting the drawing, emphasis should be placed upon con- 
structive elements and those lines which are nearest to the observer. 
Cast shadows may also be indicated by an accent. (Plates 28, 

30. 32) 

To test the accuracy of the pupil's memory of form and construc- 
tion, memory drawings of objects previously studied should be 
required from time to time. 

Suggestions. Drawings from the fiat are to be deprecated. 
Frequent practice in drawing from memory and in drawing ob- 
jects visualized from accurate verbal descriptions is recom- 
mended. Otherwise all drawings should be made from objects. 
These should be placed before the pupil in various positions and 
should be plainly in view. The teacher should frequently seat 
herself in the pupil's position to ascertain that the model has been 
properly placed. 



DRAWING 383 

All representative drawing should be free-hand, that is, without 
the aid of instruments, although devices for aiding the eye in esti- 
mating angles and proportions may be used. 

Extended study of scientific perspective is not called for in repre- 
sentative drawing. Emphasis should be placed upon correctness 
of proportion, construction and simple perspective executed free- 
hand. 

Groups should not be studied before the study of single objects. 
Interference of planes and surfaces should be avoided, especially 
in drawings of groups; that is, two objects should not interfere and 
thus appear to occupy the same space. 

Elementary representative drawings should not be made in light 
and shade, but should be drawn in accented outline. 

BLACKBOARD ILLUSTRATION 

Teachers and pupils should make constant use of the blackboard 
for rapid sketching and for the study of principles involved in class 
problems. The drawings should be large in size and should be 
executed with great freedom. This sketching should lead the pupils 
to see the objects in big, simple proportions. Blackboard drawing 
should become habitual with the teacher in all class criticism and 
discussion. 

Illustration on large paper. Large sheets of paper should also 
be used for class illustrations by the teacher. This drawing of black 
lines on light paper is similar to the work of the pupils, except in 
size. Charcoal and soft sketching pencils with big lead or black 
crayon, should be used in making large drawings in this manner. 
The medium, held at arm's length, should be used with freedom of 
movement. 

CONSTRUCTIVE DRAWING FROM MEMORY 
Training in the art of drawing from memory and from accurate 
verbal descriptions should be particularly emphasized in the last 
quarter of the year. 

The aim of such practice is training in the power of visualiza- 
tion. This may be accomplished by requiring pupils to sketch 
rapidly and accurately the familiar objects presented in previous 
lessons (bowls, vases, measures, teapots, books, boxes, baskets etc.) 
as they would appear as single objects or in simple groups, and to 
apply constructive principles in various ways to the saine model; 
that is, to have the model, as a teapot or open book, sketched in 
two or three different positions upon the same plate. 



384 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

PENCILS 

The drawing pencils should be used solely for drawing purposes. 
They should be of a medium hardness, that is, F or H. The wood 
should be well sharpened away from a blunt point. In the larger 
schools a special sketching pencil of softer lead may also be used. 

If the property of the school, the pencils may be easily cared 
for by inserting them in small holes bored part way into a block 
of wood. Rapid handling of pencils during the class period is best 
effected by the monitorial system. The monitors should be respon- 
sible for the general care and condition of the sets of pencils in their 
charge. 

ILLUSTRATIVE REFERENCE MATERIAL 

Both teacher and pupils should make collections of illustrative 
material by means of which they may not only criticize their own 
work but come to know of famous early and modern artists and their 
art. This material may consist of charts, drawings, magazine 
illustrations, advertisements etc. It should be carefully mounted, 
arranged and cataloged for ready reference and should be freely 
drawn upon by pupils and teacher at all times. 

RECOMMENDED SEQUENCE OF WORK 

The following outline offers a sequence of lessons in representa- 
tive drawing for the teacher. It is suggestive only. 

First term. Simple objects of the bowl, pail (toy or otherwise), 
vase, cups or can type, drawn singly in outline, with emphasis upon 
such features as rims, necks, bases etc. 

Objects similar to those mentioned above drawn in groups and in 
outline. 

Similar objects drawn singly on their sides and turned at various 
angles. Outline. 

Box forms open and shut, and books closed, open, on edge, etc., 
drawn singly in outline with emphasis upon simple constructive 
features, as thickness of material, corners etc. (Plates 25, 26, 27, 28) 

Second term. Objects of various types which include handles, 
spouts, lips, nozzles etc., singly in outline with emphasis on con- 
struction. (Plates 25, 29) 

Objects previously studied of cylindric and rectilinear form in 
groups and in outline. Also rectilinear forms as tables, chairs, 
cabinets etc. (Plates 27, 30, 31) 

Constructive drawing from memory may involve the principles 
previously studied in objects standing, as vases, cups, teapots, 



DRAWING 385 

tables and chairs lying; books, pails and bottles tiooed; books, 
boxes, covers, chairs. 

SPECIAL MODELS 

Whenever desirable, common objects for special use may be 
drawn. These forms may include tools and other objects used in 
connection with work in school laboratories and kitchens, or models 
of bridges, trusses and machine parts in school shops, or hats and 
doll forms in schools with household arts courses. 

Nature and science drawing. Teachers who desire to introduce 
the study of leaf or flower drawing are urged to do this through a 
series of eight to ten lessons when material is easily to be obtained. 
Complicated flowers, as the dahlia, chrysanthemum and rose, and 
complicated branches with many leaves, are deprecated. (Plates 

33. 34) 

To relate the work in representative drawing closely to the studies 
in biological and other science courses, drawing teachers are urged 
to give at least one lesson a month to the subject of ** science drawing." 
The forms drawn should be typical (insects, cocoons, shells, crystals, 
apparatus etc.) of those drawn in the science notebooks. (Plates 

35, 36, 37) 

The science drawings should be in outline and unaccented. A 
clean continuous line, that is, not a sketch line, should be used. 
Reference to the chart on insect studies from nature (plate 35) 
will show the type of drawing desired. Work in science drawing 
of this kind can well be asked of the pupil as an occasional home 
exercise. 

HOME WORK 

Teachers are urged to require pupils to submit each week at least 
one drawing made at home. This should be of a model resembling 
the models studied at the time. The paper used should be uniform 
with that used in the classroom, and the drawings should be regularly 
hung for criticism after their reception. These drawings should be 
finished with a properly outlined border, printed name, date etc., 
and should be of the same standard of excellence required in the 
classroom. 

EXHIBITS 

Pride should be stimulated in producing fine work, well lettered 
and carefully executed, which should be shown from time to time 
in school and in local exhibitions. Interest should be stimulated 
through the appearance of the drawing room itself and by exhibitions 



386 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

of original drawings or- of reproductions of works of famous artists. 
Magazines and current prints should be drawn upon for this illus- 
trative material. 

Wall space should be set apart for the hanging of exhibits. The 
background should consist of suitable material, as cork board, lino- 
leum or wood covered with burlap, art crash or monks cloth. 
Illustrative pictures, charts or other exhibits especially adapted to 
the work of the class, should be constantly in view. Such material 
should be continually changed as the class problems progress, each 
exhibit illustrating the principles under discussion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Useful books for the teacher 
Cross, A. K. Freehand Drawing. Ginn 80c 
Norton, Dora M. Freehand Perspective. The author, Pratt 

Institute $2.50. 
Clark, E. E. Plant Form. Lane $2.50 

Additional books 
Mathewson, Frank E. Perspectives from Working Drawing. 

Taylor $1 
Miller. Essentials of Perspective. Scribner $1.50 
Koch, George W. Pencil Sketching. Prang $1.50 

See also Bibliography under " Design." 



ABCDE 
FGHIJK 
LMNOP 

QRSTU 
VWXYZ 

123456 
7&QO& 

Plate 2 
Simple gothic letters for common use in lettering plates etc. 



ABCDE 

FGHIJR 
LMNOP 

QRSTU 
VWXYZ 

123456 

Plate 3 
Roman letters to he used for titles on cards, posters etc. 




BCDEFGHI 

JKLMNOPQ_ 
RSTU VWX 



Letterj b&3ed "xr "-tt 

on jquared paper Y X 



u^ed on poit- 

er3 or applied to 

linen 




FREEHAND LETTER5 FOR 
PENCIL WORK OR PEN 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP 
QR3TUVWXYZ 

2^bccIefghijklmnopqr5tuvwxyz6- 

1234567690«R-pAYf 

^°rS^"Jvc\f^3^i ARBOR-D/V 1917 

TI-IAMKSGMNG 



Plate 4 
Lettering sheet designed by supervisor of drawing, Buffalo, for use in high 

schools 




U e have ^upplkd afT Ine 
he»\ hotcfs with fresh ffcuws. 
9mc« ufchove hem c$tabfi^i£ij. 



TMC WORLD 13 BEQinniMQ 
T05EtTMATPfOPLf WHO 
CAMQADIATE SUnShlflE 
AhD CARRY QOOO CHEEP 
WMEDEVEQTMEiYQaAL- 
TMOUQHTHEYMAYBE 
D00D.AQE:OFinFmiTELY 
«?EATED VALUE TO SOCIETY 
THANThEMILLIOnAlDE. 



It nojrriAnif EST 5iw(r 
uispofiisconnim^nEiwub 

ft55.SimiA5MtAnP^0fB>IT 

KX1.IM TTunu m mjm n- 

50Ut'mEnOOni5ALU&Y5^L 
AttP SERtnt 



Plate S 
Examples of display cards and mottoes showing use of decorative units and 
initial letters by pupils in commercial course of Eastern District High 
School and in Evander Childs High School, New York City 




BEST MEALS 

AT 

REASONABLE 
PRICES 



SHINGTON CAFE 




Plate 6 
Poster designs by pupils in High School of Commerce and in Washington 
Irving High School, New York City showing simple lettering with con- 
ventional treatment in decoration 




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1 



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A55TRACT LINE BORDERS 



Plate 7 
Brush or pen treatment of straight Hnes adapted to borders 








n 

• BORDER IV\0TIVE5 ■ 
OP SIMPLE PARALLEL BAND5 WITH 
• P0351E.LE ACCENTED CORNERS • 



SJ 



Platk 8 





Z-Z-I-Z-X-X-I 



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Plate g 



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DESIGNS 
WANTED 

FOR 

RED BOOK 




Plate io 
Decorations with broad pen and brush suggesting floral forms for use in 
work of commercial center. First term work in Julia Richman High School, 
New York City 




Plate ii 
Chart of flower forms suggestive for designs. This and similar charts of 
large size should be prepared by the teacher to offer suggestions for forms 
to be conventionalized 




Plate 12 
Chart of flower forms to be enlarged by the teacher for class use in design 



^ 






Surface pattern of leaf units 
Informally conventionalized 




Border of flower units 
Informally conventionalized 



Plate 13 




Plate 14 

Designs in tempera on black paper from natural models. First year, second 

half, industrial arts course, Washington Irving High School 




• UNIT5 FROIVl OLD TEXTILES • 

SHOWING THE IMPORTANCE OF SIMPLE AND GRACEFUL tAASS FORMS 

• wmicH ARE CUT l^^■o smaller masses and pecorative details • 



-J« 



Plate 15 




COMPLETE ^^ 
DRESSMAKER ^'^ 



NATURE 
SKETCHES 

IN 

TEMPERATE 

AMERICA 

HANCOCK 



I 




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LAUGH LIN 




KODAKS 

CAMERAS AND 
PHOTOGRAPHIC 
GOODS o/^ EVERY 
DESCRIPTION 



SWEET, WALLACH 
& COMPANY.^ ^ 84 
Wabash Ave. -Jt Chicago 




FLiWOR 




FINCK 



Plate i6 

Clippings from various sources showing decorative lettering, single units and 
borders used as illustrative reference material. (See page 375) 






Plate 17 
Illustration typical of the work of one pupil for a school term about 
personal center. Second half of first year, Wadleigh High School. New 
York City. Designs are for a purse, a card case, a collar and a dress. 




rcR 

OF 
POX 



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', N FOR 

^GELQTTLR 




Plate i8 

Designs by pupils of Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Showing problems relating to home and personal centers 



1 


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Plate ig 

Constructive designs from industrial and home centers by mechanic arts 

pupils. Stuyvesant High School, New York City 




u 



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Ph c 



u 







DE5IGN-rOR-B0WL-AND-COV[R-lN-hAMMER[D-METAL' 
'WITH-P[R3PE.CTlVtfR0M-W0RKlNG-DPAWING' 



rLATR 21 




Ph rt 




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Plate 25 
Common objects of cylindric and rectangular shape suggesting general con- 
structive features as thickness, proportion etc. 



■J- ^.^L. 





PERSPECTIVE RENDERING OF A WORKING DRAWING 

• A TURNED CANDLESTICK 



Plate 26 





FREEHAND PERSPECTIVE FROM WOI^KI/MG DI^^WINGS 
' OF JOINERY PROBLEMS • 



Plate 27 




Plate 28 
Drawings from common objects in accented outline showing good arrange- 
ment and technic. Evander Childs, Wadleigh and Eastern District High 
Schools, New York City. 




Plate 29 

Pupil's drawing of common objects showing constructive features 

as handles, spout, rim etc. 





'*5S>sS^SW5?SS'SiJBWW!S*<«-. 



Plate ^o 
More complicated objects of the common type showing accented outlir 




Plate 31 
Sketches from models in school shops. Stuyvesant High School, New 
York City. After gaining confidence and ability in the drawing of the more 
common types of objects, students are allowed to enter the shoos without the 
instructor, for more difficult drawing. 





Plate 32 
Accented drawings from common vegetables with proper accented outline 




NATUPE'5 5hEATI1>!) ANDACCENT6 
• AT POINT5 OF JUNCTURE • 



Plate 33 




Plate 34 

Drawing from natural specimen showing simple treatment in flat 

values with emphasis on points of juncture 




N5ECT5TUD1E5 FROM NATURE 



Plate 35 




Plate 36 
Introductory exercises in ink and color technic from prepared nature 
specimens made in industrial arts course, Washington Irving High School, 
New York City 




Plate 37 

Nature drawings from various models in opaque water color (tempera) on 
black paper. Washington Irving High School, New York City. 



DRAWING 387 

ELEMENTARY MECHANICAL DRAWING 

INTRODUCTION 

Elementary mechanical drawing aims to prepare the pupil in the 
use of drafting instruments and seeks to give him some knowledge of 
simple projections. In addition, the pupil should be taught to 
understand the procedure in making a correct working drawing, and 
should learn the common drafting conventions. 

As a preliminary to the study of mechanically developed projec- 
tions the pupil shoiild learn to make free-hand working sketches of 
various familiar objects shown in necessary views with dimensions. 

The subject of mechanical drawing includes the following: free- 
hand working sketches, geometrical problems, lettering, working 
drawings, simple projection, isometric drawing. 

FREE-HAND WORKING SKETCHES 

The elements of projection and the purpose of working drawings 
may best be developed through preliminary exercises in making 
free-hand working sketches of various familiar forms. The objects 
used may include blocks, joints, boxes, simple tools as wrench and 
mallet, simple utensils as oil can, glass etc. The pupils should 
draw from individual models as far as possible and should show in 
their free-hand working sketches the top and front of the object 
related by light " extension lines." If all necessary information in 
regard to the dimensions of the form can not be given in these views, 
a side view should be added. 

INSTRUMENTS 

In order that acceptable mechanical work may be done, good instru- 
ments shoiild be provided. A minimum equipment should include 

A standard drawing board " kit," comprising board 12" x 18", with T square, 
45 degrees and 60 degrees triangles 
Hard pencil 2H or 3H 
12" rule with -^g" divisions 
Compasses 5' for pencil 
Thumb tacks 

Eraser (good quality essential) 
Paper, smooth finish (good quality essential; cream or white) 

Inked drawing. Inking of drawings in the elementary mechanical 

course is optional. If inking is to be done, the above equipment 

should have added to it: 

Compass pen (for insertion in compass) 

Ruling pen (good quality essential) 

Liquid india ink 

Ink eraser 

Tracing paper or tracing cloth 



388 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Inking may consist of tracing in ink over pencil drawing or on 
tracing paper or cloth. Where tracings are made it is very desirable 
that some blue prints be developed, that the purpose of the tracings 
may be made plain to the pupils. 

LETTERING 

All mechanical drawings should be appropriately lettered. " Fancy 
lettering " should be prohibited. One standard form of free-hand 
alphabet with numerals, hould be taught early and strictly adhered 
to throughout the course. The alphabet of slant letters is recom- 
mended. The capitals should be mi.ade not over | inch high, the 
small letters 3% inch high. Prominent words in titles may be larger. 
(Plates 38, 41) 

To instire satisfactory lettering, much practice must be done on 
trial paper that the pupil may learn the shapes of the letters and 
their close spacing in words. Titles and directions upon drawings 
should be lettered free hand with the lightest possible ruled guide 
lines. 

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 

The following geometrical constructions should be taught. This 
instruction may be made incidental to the use of the construction 
in working drawings or may be given in connection with instruction 
in the use of instruments. When so developed " plates " of con- 
struction will be drawn, but not more than two " plates " of four 
drawings each shall be included in the required number of plates for 
submission to the University. 

1 To erect a perpendicular to a given line 

2 To draw a line parallel to a given line 

3 To bisect a line, an arc, or an angle 

4 To construct an angle equal to a given angle 

5 To construct a triangle, scaline, isosceles, equilateral 

6 To trisect a right angle 

7 To draw a circle through three points 

8 To inscribe a circle within a triangle 

9 To draw a hexagon having given a long diameter 

10 To draw a hexagon having given a short diameter 

11 To draw a hexagon having given a side 

12 To inscribe and circumscribe the octagon 

13 To draw an arc of a given radius tangent to two straight lines 

14 To draw an arc of a given radius tangent to a circle and to 
a straight line or another arc 

15 To draw an approximate ellipse 

16 To draw an ellipse, the long and short diameter being given 



DRAWING 389 

SIMPLE PROJECTIONS 

The ability to express by drawings depends in a large measure 
on the development of power of visualization, the power of carrying 
in mind a correct and vivid picture of the thing to be represented. 
The study of the object is of course essential, but the pupil should 
also learn to draw without it. This is specially true in industrial 
drawings, where the object represented is made from the drawing, 
not the drawing from the object. In this work the order of develop- 
ment is the mental picture — the drawing — the object. 

The principles of projection may be taught to pupils by means 
of simple block models (as square prism, triangular prism, triangular 
pyramid and cone) as indicated in the following: 

Position and relation of views. The position and relation of 
views in a working drawing should be objectively illustrated. This 
may be done by hinging three pieces of glass together to form the 
front, top and right side of a box, or by sheets of cardboard similarly 
fastened. Where sheets of glass are used the various views (front, 
top and side) may be traced on the glass panes; where sheets of 
cardboard are employed, openings should be cut in these, corres- 
ponding exactly in size and shape to the front, top and side faces 
of the object. When the form is placed in position within the card- 
board box the various views will be seen through the openings made. 

The top and side (plane) of the box should be revolved so as to 
coincide with the front (plane) in order to show the relation of 
views. It will be seen that the top view swings upward, directly 
over the front view, and the side view outward to the right of the 
front view. 

Pupils should be led to see that when the construction of a form 
can be fully explained by a two-view drawing, only two views should 
be drawn. (Plate 41) When all the dimensions of a drawing can not 
be given in two views, it will then be necessary to draw a third view. 

WORKING DRAWINGS 
Views. The first thing to be considered in the making of a work- 
ing drawing is the proper selection and arrangement of views. The 
rule is, therefore, to make only the necessary views. Working 
drawings should be shown in the third angle of projection.^ In this 
angle the top view appears above the front view; the right side 
view to the right and the left side view to the left of the front view. 
Related views must be included between the same parallels and 
under no circumstances should views be interchanged, reversed, 
or interposed between related views. 

^ Engineers and architects are accustomed to use first angle projections. 



390 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Models. The models from which working drawings are made 
should be of simple form. So far as possible individual models 
should be employed. The following list suggests forms which may 
generally be secured: joints as the housed, dado, halved, rabbit 
(called also ledged or gained), mortise and tenon; cabinet ware as 
box, taboret, bracket, footstool, bookshelf, bookrack; simple tools 
as try-square, mallet, screwdriver, wrench, gauge and chisel; simple 
forms and machine parts as funnel, oil can, bolt and nut, castor, 
angle-iron, bearing, cone-pulley, bushing, and other small castings. 

Where individual models can not be secured, pupils should be 
required to make the necessary views and dimension them from 
a perspective sketch made by the teacher. A desirable exercise 
to be occasionally given, is the drawing of a third view from two 
given views. 

CONVENTIONS 
The following conventions are to be used when common local 
trade practice does not dictate otherwise: 

1 Visible edges and outlines of objects should be represented by 
full lines of medium width. (See figure i, plate 39) 

2 Invisible edges and outlines of objects shotdd be represented by 
broken lines consisting of short dashes of the same width as full 
lines, separated by spaces of about one-half the length of dashes. 
(See figure 2, plate 39) 

3 Center lines and lines indicating the position of the plane in 
which a sectional view is to be made should be broken lines con- 
sisting of alternate short and long dashes. (See figure 3, plate 39) 

4 Extension lines which project from points between which dimen- 
sions are to be expressed should be fine, broken lines consisting of 
dashes of medium length. When the total length is less than one 
inch this line may be solid. Such lines should not touch the outline 
of the object, and should extend slightly beyond the point of the 
arrowhead on the dimension line. (See figure 4, plate 39) 

5 Dimension lines should be fine, broken lines, consisting of long 
dashes, interrupted for the figures expressing the dimension. 
These lines should be determined by arrowheads whose points touch 
the proper extension lines. For short measurements the line need 
not be broken. (See figure 4, plate 39) 

6 Construction lines, including all lines which are in the nature of 
diagrams and are not essential outlines or edges of the object repre- 
sented, should be fine dotted lines. (See figure 5, plate 39) 



DRAWING 391 

Rules for dimensioning 

1 Figures should read from the bottom and right-hand sides 
of the drawing. (Plate 41) 

2 Dimensions of length should be placed below rather than above 
the view, and rarely, if ever, upon it. Dimensions of width should 
be placed at the right rather than the left. Minor dimensions may 
be placed on a view. (Plate 41) 

3 Over-all dimensions should always be given and placed outside 
all sub dimensions. (Plate 41) 

4 Dimensions from invisible edges should be avoided when possible. 

5 Dimensions should read to center lines of circles, and never to 
the circumference. (Figure 6, plate 39) 

6 Circles are dimensioned by their diameters and arcs by their 
radii. (See figures 6, 7, 8, plate 39) 

7 Section lines should be broken for a dimension placed in a 
sectional area. (See figure 27, plate 40) 

8 Dimensions should be placed oh one view if possible and should 
never be repeated. (Plate 41) 

9 Fraction lines should not be inclined but should be so made 
that if extended they would coincide with the dimension lines. 
(Figure 8, plate 39) 

10 Dimensions should never be placed on center lines and never 
be crossed by a line. (Figure 6, plate 39) 

11 When the greater dimension does not exceed, 2 feet, the whole 
drawing should be figured in inches, omitting the inch (") marks. 

12 Denote feet and inches thus: (a) 6'-io", (6) 6 ft. 10", 
(c) 8 ft. of", (6) and (c) being preferable. 

13 Subdimensions should be chosen with reference to the measure- 
ments which will be made in constructing the object. 

14 Dimensions should indicate full size independent of scale. 

Rules of practice 

1 Sections should be shown by fine diagonal lines, spaced in 
proportion to the area of the section. (See figirre 9, plate 39) 

2 In symmetrical objects one-half only may be sectioned unless the 
section is small. A section of a symmetrical piece should be made 
symmetrical. (Plate 42) 

3 Indicate the place at which a section is taken. (Plate 40) 

4 Select such views as will best show the object but as few as will 
show it clearly, using sections and details in reference to other views. 

5 Drawings should be made to as large a scale as possible. In no 
case should other than a standard scale be used. Standard scales 
axe 12,0,4,3,2,12,1,4,2.8.1. .¥. — 12. 



392 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

These scales are frequently expressed as i to i, | to i, etc. 
Details shotdd be drawn full size, or to as large a scale as may be 
convenient. (Plate 41) 

6 A view may be omitted where a note will serve instead, and 
a view which shows circles only should be omitted, placing " D " 
or " Dia." (diameter) after the circular dimensions. 

STEPS IN DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING SKETCHES 
Pupils should be taught to work with facility from drawings, 

data, and from sketches of their own. As a rule it will be found 

desirable to have a mechanical drawing developed from a free-hand 

working sketch. 

In working sketches cross-section paper may be employed. In 

the making of these sketches a systematic method should be pursued. 

The following indicates the steps in the development of a drawing 

of this type: 

1 The size and arrangement of views and details should be so 
planned that the sheet is well filled. 

2 The views should be indicated and then outlined lightly. The 
views should be drawn in correct proportion. 

3 The details should be drawn. 

4 Dimension lines should be drawn and the dimensions noted. 
In sketching, no scale should be used and no measurements taken 

until the drawing is complete and all the dimension lines in place. 
It must be impressed upon the pupil that for purposes of construction, 
the length, breadth and thickness of every part of the object and of 
every detail are absolutely necessary. Each drawing should be 
checked to insure accuracy in dimensions. 

READING WORKING DRAWINGS 

In these lessons pupils should be called upon to give a description 
of the model from a working drawing made on the blackboard, 
that is, they should be required to describe the nature and size of 
the whole object, and of its various parts, and should also explain 
its construction. 

STEPS IN DEVELOPMENT OF A MECHANICAL DRAWING 
I Planning the nimiber, placing and size of views. 
Views should be placed to secure a suitable margin about the 
drawing and a sufficient distance between views. In planning the 
sheet the place for the title should be included. (Plate 41) 



DRAWING 393 

2 Drawing of most important view. See rules for practice and 
for convention lines. (Pages 26-27) 

3 Projection of additional views in relation to the view drawn; 
project outside lines first. 

4 Completion of details. 

5 Dimensioning. See rules for dimensioning (page 27). 

6 Planning and lettering title. See rules for lettering (page 24). 
Whenever necessary in working drawings the bill of material should 

be given. 

Titles, names, firms or schools, dates and general data including 
bill of material should in most cases be placed, as illustrated, in the 
lower right-hand corner of the plate of working drawings. (Plate 41) 

RECOMMENDED SEQUENCE OF WORK 
The following outline offers a sequence of work for the elementary 
mechanical drawing course. This plan for one year's work is 
suggestive only. 

First term 
Lettering (i plate). 
Free-hand working sketches (2 plates). 

Geometric problems with coincident instruction in the use of 
mechanical drawing instrimients (2 plates). 

Dimensioned mechanical drawings of simple joints and tools. 
Objects requiring two views preceding more difficult forms (3 
plates) . 

Second term 

Dimensioned mechanical drawings of simple cabinet pieces, 
objects requiring three views (2 plates). 

Drawings of machine parts and simple castings (2 plates). 

Objects requiring sectioned drawings (2 plates). 

Drawings of more difficult machine parts (2 plates). A plate 
of tracings may be substituted for one of these drawings. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Anthony, Gardner C. Elements of Mechanical Drawing. Heath 

$1.50 
Babbitt, Arthur B. Working Drawings. Holt $1 
Bennett, Charles A. Mechanical Drawing. Manual Arts Press $1 . 50 
Coolidge & Freeman. Elements of General Drafting. Wiley $2.50 
Cross, Anson K. Mechanical Drawing. Ginn $1 
Daniels, Frank T. Freehand Lettering. Heath 750 



394 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Mathewson, Frank E. Notes for Mechanical Drawing. Taylor- 
Holden $1.25 

Perspective Sketching from Working Draw- 
ings. Taylor-Holden $1 

Mathewson & Stewart. Applied Mechanical Drawing Taylor- 
Holden $1 

Miller, H. W. Mechanical Drafting. Manual Arts Press $1.50 

Sloane & others. Mechanical Drawing for High Schools. Atkinson, 
Mentzer & Co. 65c 



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Conventions used in mcclianical drawing: 



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Plate 40 
Conventions used in mechanical drawing 




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DRAWING 



INTERMEDIATE DRAWING 



395 



The primary aim of intermediate drawing is to strengthen the 
pupil's knowledge of constructive form and to teach him the use 
of various mediums (pencil, crayon, charcoal etc.) in the represen- 
tation of objects in light and shade. 

The exercises should be given from single models and simple 
groups. These should be studied by the pupil as they appear when 
placed in shadow boxes, that the details of construction and light 
and shade may be plainly observed. 

These drawings from models should also be supplemented by 
exercises in drawing from memory in light and shade. 

Especial emphasis in this course is to be placed upon the esthetic 
elements involved in the problems of representation. These include 
the rendering of the form in pencil, or other medium, and the relation 
of the various models of a group to one another and to the inclosing 
line within which they are shown. These principles of arrange- 
ment are known as " composition " and should form an element 
in the development of every drawing from a group, 

MODELS 

The models used in intermediate drawing should be similar to 
those employed in elementary drawing, including cups, vases, bowls, 
pails, measui^s, books, boxes, tables, chairs, cabinets. Each studio 
should be fiirnished with an abundant supply of these familiar 
objects which, so far as possible, should be offered as individual 
rather than class models to the pupils. 

The purpose of instruction in intermediate drawing, other than 
the teaching of light and shade, is to cause the pupil to study the 
details of " construction " in the models drawn. Marked emphasis 
should therefore be placed on the correct drawing of difhcult elements 
of construction as seen in lips, handles, projecting rims, etc. 

USE OF SHADOW BOX 

An adequate ntimber of model stands and shadow boxes is essential 
to all teaching of light and shade. The purpose of the shadow box 
is to prevent light from falling upon the model except from one side 
(preferably the left). 

Permanent shadow boxes of wood may be used and should con- 
sist of a base and two vertical sides at right angles to each other. 
The models may be placed upon the wooden base, and the sides so 
turned that the light enters from the left, while the models are seen 



396 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

in Strong relief against the shadow formed by the angle of the two 
sides. Where wooden shadow boxes are not available, useful sub- 
stitutes may be made of two pieces of heavy gray cardboard or book- 
board hinged by a strip of binding tape glued to adjacent edges. 
These boards may stand on edge behind the model and may be 
adjusted in the same manner as the wooden shadow box. 

METHODS OF TEACHING 

Size of drawings. Drawings made in this course should be on 
paper not less than 9 by 12 inches, a margin being regularly drawn 
free-hand three-fourths of an inch from the edge of the sheet. 

Principles of perspective. The principles of perspective should 
be developed as a series of discoveries made by the pupil, but they 
should be formulated ultimately in clear, definite statements and 
so thoroughly mastered by the pupil that their application becomes 
automatic. In this study the following should be discussed: (i) the 
picture plane, (2) the horizon, (3) the center of vision, (4) the line 
of sight, (5) vanishing points, (6) convergence of parallel lines or 
edges in various positions, (7) foreshortening of planes and surfaces. 

Composition and grouping. After the study of light and shade 
in single models, groups should be employed with especial emphasis 
upon " composition." This is the harmonious relation of the 
elements in the group. Compositions may consist of two forms of 
contrasting shape, size and " color value," as a pitcher and glass. 
Three objects will form a more interesting group, but more than 
four should not, as a rule, be employed. 

The objects used in any composition should differ in size, shape, 
and proportion, and should be so arranged that they overlap and 
are seen as one mass (see illustrations), not as a series of separate 
forms. One element should be the principle and the others kept 
subordinate to this, as in a group of a bottle and strawberry box, 
or a bowl and vegetable. Groups of two objects of the same size, 
or of the same color, are to be avoided, as are groups of totally 
unrelated forms, as a watering pot and a book. Small objects do 
not compose well; each group should include one form of good size. 

Steps in lesson. Class questioning and criticism shoidd accom- 
pany the development of the following steps: 

I Determination of size of drawing. _ Drawings should be made of 
good size. Small drawings are deprecated. As a rule, some part 
of one of the models of a group should touch the inclosing line. 
It is also permissible to have part of a model cut off by the margin. 
This suggests additional space outside the drawing, and makes 
possible pleasing lines in the composition. 



DRAWING 



397 



2 Proper placing within the margin. This is noted in the foregoing. 

3 Determination and drawing oj main proportions followed by 
details of construction. At this stage of the drawing the Hghtest 
possible sketch lines should be used. 

4 Determination and laying in of dark surfaces. In the earlier 
drawings in light and shade only one tone need be employed. This 
will represent the shadow. Particular attention must be given 
to the shape of the shadow mass, but in no case is a dark 
line to be drawn around this mass. In later drawings two shade 
tones may be employed. These, with the very dark notes needed 
for accents and with an additional dark tone for cast shadows 



i|»?4J^^fjjg ' ^^^|iH^#yw^m ' ^iM;u-4^^ " . i|i,^& '* A '' ^"v^' ■ "» ' , ' >*iLf ' ^ 







Direct pencil strokes and simplified values 

will be sufficient for the most advanced work to be done in this course. 
The steps in the development of these advanced drawings should 
require the main shadow masses to be drawn after a careful light 
outline has been completed. The cast shadows are then to be drawn 
and any background tone, if this is to be introduced. The drawing 
is then to be completed by the introduction of the small dark notes 
known as " accents." 

5 Criticism. Throughout the lessons the work should be fre- 
quently criticized as to perspective, construction, and technic. 
Tests to insure the correctness of the drawing should include the 
following: (a) whole height compared to whole width; (b) com- 
parison of horizontal levels of important points; (c) comparison of 



398 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

distances from front to back, of important points; (d) comparison 
of vertical relations of important points; (e) comparison of oblique 
and diagonal relations and distances of important points. 

The representation of objects in pencil light and shade is full 
of conventions. The technical devices by which surfaces are modeled 
and contrasts of light and shade secured, can be explained only- 
through adequate pencil drawings. It should be the effort of the 
teacher to cultivate the power of developing these drawings before 
the pupils on large sheets of paper. Wax crayon or large lumber- 
checking pencils may be used for this purpose. 

The preliminary practice in learning to shade should consist in 
making even tones of various depths of color by drawing straight 
lines close together. All shaded surfaces are to be thus produced, 
no cross-hatching of lines being allowed. 

Major points to be sought. Among the more important points 
to be sought for in each light and shade drawing are: 

1 Constructive excellence. The relation and proportion of parts 
must be maintained ; shading must not be made an excuse for badly 
drawn forms. The finished drawing should not show detail masked 
by shade. 

2 Large drawings of strong contrast. A pictorial effect is to be 
sought. Technical excellence is to be secured through clean-cut 
lights and cleanly made darks untouched by the eraser. Dark masses 
should be made by strokes of sharp dark lines and not by repeated 
pencil strokes over the same surface. 

3 Unity of grouping. Unity of grouping is to be obtained by 
closely related objects in the group. If the group has one large 
principal member and the other members subordinate, unity will 
result. 

4 Crispness. Crispness is to be secured by " direct handling," 
that is, without repetition of two strokes over one another, and 
also by clean definition of the edges of all lights and darks without 
the use of an outline about the shaded siirface. 

SUGGESTIONS 

1 Loss of constructive details. Hasty shading of badly drawn 
forms is deprecated. 

2 Scattered objects. Groups of small forms, especially of forms 
at a distance from one another and lost in wide surrounding margins, 
are to be avoided. 

3 Woolly and rubbed drawings. Woolly drawings result from the 
use of too soft a pencil, repeated strokes over the same line, and by 



DRAWING 



399 



an uneven pressure maintained throughout the stroke. The eraser 
should not be used in shaded drawing. To prevent the drawing 
from being rubbed, the shading should be begun above and should 
be carried downward through the sketch. 

Under no circumstances should the attempt be made to produce 
shaded masses with the " stump " or finger. 

4 Copied drawings. In teaching technical " handling," pupils 
may be permitted to copy certain details drawn before them by the 
teacher, but no complete drawings are to be copied from teacher's 
work or other sources. 

5 Cast shadows in different directions. Models properly 
arranged in a shadow box will show all shadows cast in a direction 
opposite to the source of light. If no shadow box is used, cross 
lights will fall upon the group and cast shadows in different directions 
will be seen. This arrangement is to be avoided. 

6 Outlines about shaded surfaces. An outhne will be neces- 
sary to define one light surface against another, but when light and 
dark surfaces come together no outline should be drawn between 
them; that is, the dark edge of the shaded surface must define itself 
without an outline. 

ILLUSTRATION BY CLASS TEACHER 

Imitation may be made to play a helpful part in all light and shade 
drawing. Through this the more difficult processes of technical 
execution are to be taught. The teacher should illustrate each step 
on a surface and with a medium similar to that employed by the 
pupils; that is, draw on large sheets of paper with large pencil or 
crayon. Drawing upon a blackboard with chalk do2S not give the 
pupil a technical example which he can follow; the large pencil 
drawing, on the other hand, shows him exactly what to do and how 
to do it. The blackboard should be freely used by teacher and 
pupils in the illustration of principles of perspective and fore- 
shortening, but the paper referred to should be employed to make 
plain technical theory and practice. 

MEDIUMS 

In intermediate drawing, the pencil should be the chief medium. 
A pencil of medium softness should be employed; one too soft will 
cause rubbed and woolly drawings. To develop a broad stroke with 
the pencil, it should be sharpened to a blunt point and then rubbed 
down upon a piece of waste papsr. Teachers who have had special 
training in the use of colored crayons may employ these with apt 
pupils to suggest color in the objects. 



40O THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

RECOMMENDED SEQUENCE OF WORK 

The following sequence of one year's work is suggestive only: 

First term. Simple rectangular forms, as boxes and books, 
followed by simple curvilinear objects, as bowls, pitchers, vases 
and cans. 

Objects similar to these mentioned above in simple groups, first 
of two forms, later of three forms. 

Second term. Objects with handles, spouts, nozzles, lips etc., 
at first studied singly and then in groups. 

Light and shade drawings from memory. In these drawings 
the light may be assumed to come from the upper left-hand side. 

HOME WORK 

Teachers are urged to require pupils to submit each week a light 
and shade drawing made at home. This should be of a model or 
group resembling the forms being studied at the time in the classroom. 
The size and finish of these drawings should be similar to the drawings 
made under instruction, and all work of this kind should regularly 
be hung for exhibition and criticism after its reception. 

REFERENCE MATERIAL 

The teacher will find helpful reference material in the standard 
drawing books, but most of the drawings shown are too small to be 
employed in the classroom. It is therefore recommended that the 
instructor enlarge these or make similar drawings for classroom use. 

The following books will be helpful: 
Cross, Anson K. Light and Shade. Ginn $i 
Norton, Dora Mirian. Freehand Perspective. Pratt Institute $3 
Koch, George W. Pencil Sketching. Prang $1.50 
Jacobs, Harry W. Portfolio Pencil Sketches. (Buildings) Scott 

Foresman 75c 
Woodbury, Charles H. Pencil Sketches of Trees. Milton Bradley 

Co. 50c 
Hall, James. With Pen and Ink. Prang $1.50 



DRAWING 401 



ADVANCED DRAWING 

Teachers presenting any advanced course in drawing must secure the approval 
of the University for the plan of study if credits for the work are to be obtained 
by the pupils. Application blanks will be sent upon request, but schools should 
not generally apply unless equipped to do work advanced and technical in 
character. 

ADVANCED REPRESENTATION 

Advanced representation should include subjects of still life, 
such as nature forms, including fruit, flowers, vegetables; botanical 
and biological specimens; casts of historic ornament or the antique. 
The mediums employed may be pencil, charcoal, crayon, water 
color or ink. 

Optional work will include pencil sketching from nature; figure 
sketching from the draped model in pencil, ink or wash; illustration, 
using figure studies as drawings and decorations especially for school 
periodicals. 

Methods of study. The study of advanced representation should 
be pursued with an effort to excel in careful draftmanship, truth of 
values, correct rendering of color, and a more mature and sympathetic 
treatment of the subjects than is possible in the elementary coiu-se. 
Examples of well-executed drawings by artists in originals or repro- 
duction should constantly be in view as incentives to high standards 
of work. (Plate 43) 

ADVANCED DESIGN 

Centers and objects studied. The advanced design should be 
developed about one of the " centers " previously outlined. These 
are: the home center, the personal center, the commercial center, 
the industrial center. The character and extent of the work will 
be determined by local conditions and the amount of time offered. 

Courses which are general in their nature should be largely con- 
fined to the home and the person and may include advanced study 
of those problems outlined under elementary design. In addition, 
the home center may include the architecture and interior decoration 
and furnishing of the home. Additional problems in the personal 
center may include the designs for millinery, various complete 
costumes, historic styles, etc. (Plate 45) 

Cities which are commercial or industrial centers should see the 
course related to their chief industrial art activities. Schools 
located in these cities should offer advanced design courses based 
on the commercial and industrial centers. (Plate 44) 

In addition to the work outlined in the elementary courses, the 
commercial center should offer advanced work in lettering, color 



402 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

theory, color in printing, reproductive processes, etc. The industrial 
center should offer advanced study in designs for the industrial 
arts. 

Methods of teaching. The teacher should present all new phases 
of the Work to the class as a whole but the greater part of the teaching 
should be individual. All classes should be small and the problems 
should be individually carried out. Whenever possible, the problems 
should be executed in the material for which the design is made. 

ADVANCED MECHANICAL DRAWING 

Advanced mechanical drawing should be pursued only in technical 
courses in academic high schools or in the higher years of manual 
training and technical high schools. 

Three general lines of work are suggested as follows: (i) ortho- 
graphic projection and machine drawing, (2) gear and cam drawing, 
(3) architectural drawing. 

Orthographic projection and machine drawing course. This 
course may include theoretical study of projection, the study of 
intersections and developments and the study of machine drawing 
with necessary drafting conventions. The work should consist of 
the drawing of more difficult objects than those outlined in elementary 
mechanical drawing and a study of the more technical details of 
drafting room practice and may be taken up under the following 
heads: orthographic projection, intersections and developments, 
drafting conventions and machine drawing. 

Gear and cam drawing course. The work of this course may 
include the study of (a) the involute, spiral and helix, (6) the screw 
thread, (c) the gear, (d) the cam. 

The pupil should be taught how to use data, formulas and tables 
from the handbooks and strong emphasis should be placed on the 
method of attacking problems. 

Architectural drawing course. The work of this course may 
present the following: (a) conventions and forms of architectural 
drafting, (b) esthetic essentials of architecture, (c) the dwelHng 
house, {d) interior furnishing. 

The treatment of the subject should be general. in character. It 
should seek to give the pupil a knowledge of the more common 
conventions in architectural drafting and should have as its aim 
the development of taste and judgment in the use of ornament and 
the arrangement of simple plans. 

Schools approved for instruction in advanced drawing may offer 
other courses than those mentioned above. Such courses should be 
tilly outlined and submitted for approval. 




Plate 43 

Suggested work for advanced or special courses 

Pencil drawings from prepared specimens. Industrial 

arts course, Washington Irving High School, New 

York City 




Plate ^4 

Decorative designs in tempera color. Industrial 
arts course, Washington Irving High School, New 
York City 




Plate 45 
Suggested work for advanced or special art courses. Original designs in 
pencil, pen and ink, and color. Second year, second half, industrial arts 
course, Washington Irving High School, New York City 



MUSIC 403 



GROUP VII 
MUSIC 

Adopted by the Regents igio 

Two courses in music are presented in this syllabus : 

A Course for secondary schools [p. 392J 

B Course for music schools [p. 418J 
The course for secondary schools includes the following: 

1 Chorus singing and rudiments of music 

2 Dictation and melody writing 

3 Music appreciation 

The course for music schools embraces: 

1 Voice 

2 Pianoforte 

3 Organ 

4 Violin 

5 Ear training and dictation 

6 Melody writing 
( Harmony 

1 Counterpoint 

8 Musical form and analysis 

9 History of music 
10 Acoustics 

In the following pages there will be found a general outline, 
or course of instruction, under each one of these subjects. 

It must be remembered that these outlines are both specific 
and suggestive : 

Specific, in that sufficient study material is recommended to 
enable the student to gain the amount of attainment required in 
each grade. 

Suggestive, in that it leaves the teacher free to follow any 
method of work which may be preferred, and to select from and 
to supplement these outlines of study with such other material 
as has been proved valuable by experience. 

In the prefatory note to the courses in choral singing, dicta- 
tion, and pianoforte playing, the attitude of the Department 
toward the teachers' work, courses of study, and variations in 
the sequence of work as demanded by individual students, is 
carefully explained. The spirit of these introductions obtains 
26 



404 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

throughout the syllabus. The bibliography of material, while 
sufficient, may be amplified, and the teacher may follow any 
plan of study, or system of procedure, that is desired. 

A diploma in music will be given for the following counts : 

Counts 

Musical instruction (4 years) 20 

Musical practice (2 hours per week for a school 

year entitles to one count) 15 

History (2 three hour courses) 6 

English (4 years) • 13 

Foreign language (2 years) , 10 

Electives 8 



72 

The 20 counts for musical instruction will be given on passing 
written examinations as follows : 

Counts 

Chorus singing and rudiments of music 2 

Harmony and counterpoint. 7 

Musical form and analysis 4 

Dictation and melody writing , 3 

Acoustics and history of music , 4 



20 

The 15 counts for musical practice will be given only to 
students of regularly accredited and inspected schools, on cer- 
tificate of the principal. 

These courses in music are also recognized in the subjects 
necessary for the academic diploma, as follows : A student who 
meets the " group requirements " for an academic diploma, viz : 
English (13 counts), history (8 counts), mathematics (10 
counts), science (10 counts), may offer music for the 31 elective 
counts, or any part thereof. 

A COURSE FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS 
Chorus singing and the rudiments of music 
All secondary schools taking the Regents examinations in 
music are required to devote at least the equivalent of one 
period per week of not less than 40 minutes to chorus singing, 
exclusive of the time given to theoretical work. It is recom- 
mended that every school devote at least two periods per week to the 
subject. 



MUSIC 405 

Classification of voices 

The subject should not be made elective, but should be re- 
quired of all students who can "match tones." It is essential 
that all voices be classified at the beginning of the year. The 
music teacher should arrange with the principal to meet all 
pupils during the first days of school, for classification. Each 
student should be heard separately and an alphabetical record 
made, giving the part each should sing, and mentioning any 
unusual conditions. If a glee club or small chorus is to be 
organized later, the record should include a rating for all eli- 
gible voices; this will avoid the necessity of another general trial 
of voices. 

Properly to classify the voices, considerable practical knowl- 
edge of the singing voice and much experience are required. 
No director should fail to take every possible opportunity to 
become qualified for this most important duty. However, any 
serious attempt at classification is infinitely better than the 
failure to classify, and there is no other way in which the teacher 
can learn so many important things about the class in so short 
a time.. 

Sopranos. The child voice, when normal, is soprano, and 
should be so treated. If the voice has been properly cared for 
in the grades, i. e. if the light head voice has been used most 
of the time, and the lower, thick voice used sparingly, it will 
be found that a large majority of the girls, entering the high 
school, sing the soprano part. The number of contraltos will 
increase as the voices mature, hi no case should a soprano be en- 
couraged, much less compelled, to sing the contralto part exclusively. 

A voice should be classified according to its quality, rather 
than its range. 

(It is the general .custom, when part singing is begun in the 
lower grades, to divide the class arbitrarily, requiring one divi- 
sion to sing the upper part and the other division the lower part, 
permanently. This is probably the most pernicious practice 
common to school music. Irreparable injury is done to the 
voice which is restricted to the lower part. Because a child 
happens to sit on the side of the room assigned to the lower 
part, he is compelled to sign .the lower part throughout the 
year, and 'being thereafter able to carry the lower part, finds 
the same fate awaiting him in each successive 'grade until he 
reaches the high school. Until the practice of restricting 



406 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

children to the lower part is stamped out, school singing will 
continue to ruin beautiful soprano voices. A constant change 
of parts should always be a condition of part singing in the 
lower grades. Furthermore, many of the children who have 
learned to sing the upper part only will later become contraltos 
and will be seriously handicapped by their inability to sing a 
lower part. 

Contraltos. Contraltos will be found trying to sing soprano 
because they can not " carry " any other part, because their 
parents want them " to have a soprano voice," or because they 
do not realize that the voice has become contralto. They may 
be able to sing as high as is required of the soprano, but there 
is a certain " woodiness " or stridency of the upper tones, and a 
fulness and breadth of the middle and low tones which indicate 
the contralto. 

There are occasional mezzo-sopranos that may safely sing either 
the soprano or contralto part. 

Boys' voices. There will be found boys in every high school 
whose voices have not changed. These boys should be encour- 
aged to sing soprano as long as they can do so easily. Boys 
often continue to sing the soprano part easily after the speaking 
voice begins to change. 

Boy tenors. Boys who are taught to sing properly in the 
grades, that is to say, to use the thin head voice easily, and do 
not develop the strident, throaty '* chest " tones, will, in many 
cases, continue to sing as the voice changes, gradually losing 
the upper tones and at the same time developing and extending 
the lower voice. Such boys can sing the tenor part for a lim- 
ited time, singing the part an octave lower than it is written 
with the G clef. They should be carefully watched and urged 
to report whenever they can not sing the tenor part easily, at 
which time they should either stop singing altogether or sing 
bass. 

When boys should stop singing. In many instances the voice 
will be found to change quite differently. Both the singing and 
speaking voice " breaks " and becomes rough and beyond control. 
When the voice is in this state the boy should not sing at all until 
a normal condition of the singing and speaking voice returns. 
Without individual trial of voices many of these conditions remain 
unknown to the music teacher. 

Tenors. Contrary to the general impression, tenor voices are 



MUSIC 407 

not scarce in this country. In the average college, for instance, 
there will be found nearly as many tenors as baritones and 
basses. This apparent scarcity is due to this fact, whereas 
basses and baritones can usually sing more or less agreeably 
without expert assistance, the tenors must be taught to sing 
by teachers who can recognize and properly train the tenor 
voice. Such teachers are, unfortunately, scarce. The teacher 
is very often not only unable to train the tenor but equally un- 
able to recognize a tenor voice when trying voices. Here, again, 
it is the quality rather than the range that determines. The 
baritone may sing " high G " without difficulty if he has had 
good training, and the untrained tenor may fail to sing F with- 
out shouting, because he does not know how to " cover " the 
upper tones. Consequently many tenor voices are judged by 
their possessors and their teachers to be baritones. However, 
it is safer and wiser to allow the tenor to try to sing bass rather 
than shout with " open," strained, high tones. 

The high school teacher should lose no opportunity to learn 
how to care for and train the tenor voice. This skill can not be 
acquired by reading alone. Careful study with an expert teacher 
is essential. 
^ Bass voices. The bass part is much easier for boys because 
the compass is lower and therefore more nearly identical with 
the speaking voice, and because the " chest " or open voice can 
be used most of the time with less strain and less demand for 
covered tones. Much injury is often done to the tenor voice by 
continued attempts to reach the lower tones of the bass part. 
Squeezing of the throat in the effort to produce the low tones 
with the consequent hoarseness, is a common experience. How- 
ever, this is less injurious than the shouting, throaty, high tones 
produced by the stiff jaw and rigid throat of the tenor who has 
not been taught to " cover " his upper tones. 

Skilful supervisors a necessity. Safely to teach singing to 
children of any age, from the kindergarten to the high school, 
a supervisor is required who knows and can apply correct meth- 
ods ; without this knowledge and skill more harm than good is 
likely to result from children's singing. Harsh, throaty, un- 
musical singing is always unnecessary and inexcusable and is 
productive of irrevocable injury. The music teacher is blame- 
able and should be held responsible for injurious singing in the 
schools. 



408 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Selection of music 

Concerning the music to be studied, every school is a separate 
problem. It is vitally important that the music shall be adapted 
to and be suitable for the class. There is often strong tempta- 
tion to select attractive and interesting music which, for differ- 
ent reasons, is utterly unfit for the chorus. 

Bad arrangement of voices. A common, and most harmful 
method of arranging music for schools, arises from the ambition 
to sing elaborate choruses for mixed voices in four parts. 
Choruses for soprano, alto, tenor and bass are reprinted with the 
alto part marked second soprano, the tenor part printed an octave 
lower and marked alto, the soprano and bass parts remaining un- 
changed. Continued use of music arranged in this way results 
in irreparable injury to the sopranos who are compelled to sing 
alto under the guise of second soprano, and even more serious 
injury to the altos who must sing entirely in the lowest register, 
thereby literally breaking the voice from disuse of the upper 
part and from the habit of forcing the lower, thick voice beyond 
its normal range. 

Music for the smaller schools. In many of the smaller high 
schools it will be found impracticable to use four-part music 
for mixed voices. The most favorable music for such a school 
is that arranged for three parts — soprano, alto and bass, the 
bass part being written in the baritone compass. While the 
range of the soprano and alto parts may be almost as wide as 
for an ordinary adult chorus, the compass of the bass and tenor 
parts should be much less. The tenor part should rarely extend 
beyond G above the staff and the bass part should not be writ- 
ten low. A bass part extending from A (first space, bass clef) 
to E flat (second line above the bass clef) is in the most desir- 
able compass for young basses. 

Music to avoid. The attempt by high schools to sing the 
heaviest and most trying choruses is another source of serious 
injury to immature voices. The singing of such selections as the 
Hallelujah Chorus from the Messiah and Unfold Ye Portals from 
The Redemption should never be allowed in a high school. The 
continued strain arising from the long, sustained, high tones, sung 
fortissimo, is a severe test even for adult voices, and is exceedingly 
harmful to voices of the high school age. It is most important 
that the music selected shall not force the voices beyond a safe 
and legitimate compass and shall not cause undue strain. 



MUSIC 409 

Worthy texts. It is of prime importance in selecting music for 
a chorus that it be well adapted to the words and that the words be 
worth while. The text should be of sufficient merit to be worthy of 
study independent of the music. There is so much good music 
wedded to worthy and beautiful texts that it is quite unneces- 
sary to study music or words unworthy of being retained in 
the memory. 

One of the most prolific and accessible sources for high school 
music study is that of hymnology. Every high school should be 
taught to sing hymns intelligently. There are scores of beautiful 
hymns set to excellent tunes which every high school should 
know. One of the most attractive ways to teach sight reading 
to a high school is through the use of hymn tunes. Careful 
attention to phrasing, pronunciation and enunciation in the 
singing of good hymns gives the young people of a community 
an interest in and a wholesome respect and love for good hymns. 
This is a much to be desired result ; it is a distinct and very 
much needed community asset. The hymn singing in most 
communities is far below the general musical standard. The 
high school can do much to improve this and instil a love and respect 
for this beautiful and simple form of art. 

The accompanist. It is not wise for the conductor to act also 
as accompanist. There will be found in nearly every school 
young men and women who play the piano. The most capable 
one should be chosen for the accompanist. The conductor and 
accompanist should work together, in private, until the latter 
understands and can follow the beat readily, and is able to play 
each of the four parts alone, in octaves if necessary, always play- 
ing the tenor part in unison with the voices. The position of 
accompanist should be one of honor in the school; it is a posi- 
tion helpful both to the school and to the player. A grand or 
square piano, which should be kept in good tune, is much to be 
preferred to an upright. The piano should be so placed that the 
accompanist shall have a clear view of the conductor without 
having to turn sideways. Using an upright piano makes this 
necessary arrangement impossible. 

Seating the chorus. The chorus must be seated by parts if 
good work is to be made possible. This arrangement is some- 
times difficult to secure because the principal, for special rea- 
sons, often desires the school to be seated in some other order. 
The conductor should be able to convince the principal of the 
vital importance of seating the chorus by parts, both for the 



410 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

assembly and for the regular chorus period. Schools not hav- 
ing an assembly hall, but conducting the chorus class in the 
regular schoolroom, should arrange a systematic plan for chang- 
ing seats for the chorus period. The change can usually be 
made in a moment by having the students stand and march 
with piano accompaniment. The weaker parts should be placed 
nearest the front. It is customary 
to seat the chorus as follows : 



Sopranos 


Altos 


Basses 


Tenors 












Conductor 





Where there are but few tenors, it is well to place them in 
front of the sopranos, with the boy sopranos directly behind the 
tenors. In case the basses and tenors are in a decided minority, 
they may be seated together at the front and center. 

Conducting 

The success of music in the high school largely depends upon 
the capability and effectiveness of the music teacher as a con- 
ductor. To become thoroughly equipped for this most import- 
ant duty should be the aim of every teacher in charge of music 
in the high school. 

Preparation of the conductor. Singing under the direction of 
a skilful conductor, or watching carefully, with score in hand, 
the work of a capable orchestra conductor, is the best way to 
learn to conduct a chorus. Practically the only way to acquire 
good taste and correct ideals in music is to hear much good 
music well interpreted. No student of conducting can afford to 
miss an opportunity of hearing good music in its larger forms, 
directed by a capable conductor. 

Conductor must be systematic and businesslike. Much de- 
pends upon systematic and careful attention to detail, and upon 
the conductor's ability to preserve good order and to create and 
maintain interest in the music. Systematic and businesslike 
methods, applied to classification of voices, training of the ac- 
companist, seating of the chorus, and many other details, are 
absolutely essential to success. The selection of suitable music 
is vital, but not more so than the careful study of the music and 
text by the conductor previous to rehearsal. The conductor 
must know and feel the correct tempo, must have the desired 



MUSIC 411 

interpretation of the words and music clearly in mind before 
the first rehearsal. In addition, he should be familiar with all 
available facts and anecdotes of interest relating to the music, 
the composer, or the author. 

Music attractive to young people. If the director of the 
chorus has selected good music, is full of intelligent enthusiasm, 
and is capable of securing a musicianly and effective interpre- 
tation, the interest and enthusiasm on the part of the chorus 
will never be found lacking. The intrinsic interest which good 
music has for young people is greater than that of almost any 
other subject-matter. This interest is latent in every school of 
whatever grade, and only awaits the right person to transform 
it into an active and useful force. 

Learning the parts. If the chorus can not read the parts 
simultaneously, it is best to work with each part separately 
even to the extent of having part rehearsals. Allowing a part 
to be sung incorrectly over and over again is one of the worst 
and most common faults of inexperienced conductors. 

Following the conductor's beat. It is absolutely necessary 
that the chorus shall form the habit of watching the conductor's 
beat. Much tact, skill and perseverance are required to estab- 
lish this habit of constant attention. Unless the conductor can 
secure this, good chorus singing is impossible. Throughout all 
the hard work the chorus must be kept in good humor. Young 
people or older people will not sing well when they are not in 
a cheerful mood. Therefore the conductor must watch the spirit 
of the chorus carefully. A school will do any amount of hard 
work in music if properly managed. 

Care of voices. Perhaps the most important duty of the high 
school music teacher as well as of the supervisor of the grades 
is to protect the voice from injury. The ability to detect and 
correct bad tone production, and secure comparative ease and 
safety in the use of the voice is, above every other qualification, 
essential. This requires special training and study with a 
teacher expert in the training of children's voices, without which 
no teacher should assume the tremendous responsibility involved 
in the care and training of hundreds of young voices. 

Bibliography 

In the following lists of octavo music and music books, edi- 
tions containing the composers' original music are strongly rec- 
ommended, unless the arranger's name appears with that of the 



412 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

composer. Adaptations and arrangements are usually undesirable 
and should, in most cases, be avoided. 

The full vocal score of cantatas should always be used by the 
chorus. The practice of supplying the chorus with the chorus 
parts only is exceedingly bad for obvious reasons, and should 
not be tolerated. 

Music books for high school 
Ripley & Tapper. Advanced Music Reader 
Dann, Hollis. Christmas Carols and Hymns 
Hoff, William C. Corona Song Book 
Zeiner, Edward J. High School Song Book 
Tomlins, W. L. Laurel Song Book 
Johnson, C. W. Songs of the Nation 
Emerson, Irving. High School Hymnal 
Dann, Hollis. School Hymnal 

Books for the music teacher 
Henderson, W. J. The Art of the Singer 
Howard, F. E. The Child Voice in Singing 
Wodell, F. W. Choir and Chorus Conducting 
Krehbiel, H. E. How to Listen to Music 
Giddings, T. P. School Music Teaching 

Choruses for mixed voices 

The music is in octavo form for soprano, alto, tenor and bass 
unless otherwise specified. 
As Torrents in Summer. Edward Elgar 
At Evening. Jules Massenet 
At the Cloister Gate. Edward Grieg 
Ave Maria. Franz Abt 
Ave Verum. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 
Awake Thou that Sleepest (from the Daughter of Jairus). 

John Stainer 
Birthday of a King, The. W. H. Neidlinger 
Blow, Gentle Gales. Sir Henry Bishop 
Blow, Ye Gentle Breezes. J. Christopher Marks 
Bridal Chorus, The (from the Rose Maiden). Frederic Cowen 
Carnovale. Gioachino Rossini 
Come, Dorothy, Come. Swabian Volkslied 
Country Fair Waltz. Franz Abt 
Crusaders, The. Giro Pinsuti 
Damascus Triumphal March (from Naaman). Michael Costa 



MUSIC 413 

Daybreak. Eaton Faning 

Endless Song, The. W. H. Neidlinger 

Evening Bell, The (from the Seasons). Franz Josef Haydn 

Fairy Song. Agnes Zimmerman 

Farewell to the Forest. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 

Freedom, our Queen. J. K. Paine 

Glorious is Thy Name (from 12th Mass). Wolfgang Amadeus 
Mozart 

God of our Fathers. P. A. Schnecker 

Goodnight, Beloved. Giro Pinsuti 

Gypsy Chorus (from Bohemian Girl). Michael William Balfe 

Gypsy Life. Robert Schumann 

Happy and Light (from the Bohemian Girl). Michael William 
Balfe 

Hail, Smiling Morn. Reginald Spofiforth 

Hark, Apollo Strikes the Lyre (S.A.B.). H. R. Bishop 

Hark, the Curfew's Solemn Sound (S.A.B.). T. Attwood 

Heavens Resound, The. Ludwig van Beethoven 

How Lovely are the Messengers (from St Paul). Felix Men- 
delssohn-Bartholdy 

Hymn of Thanks. Edward Kremser 

Indian Maid, The. J. L. Hatton 

I Waited for the Lord (from Hymn of Praise). Felix Mendels- 
sohn-Bartholdy 

I Will Extol Thee (from Eli). Michael Costa 

Kyrie (from Mass in C). Ludwig van Beethoven 

Lead, Kindly Light. Boyton Smith 

Like as a Father (from the Redemption). Charles Gounod 

Like as a Father (3 parts). Luigi Cherubini 

Lord is Great, The (from Athalie). Felix Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy 

Lovely Appear (from the Redemption). Charles Gounod 

Mark the Merry Elves (S.A.B.). Dr J. W. Callcott 

Matona, Lovely Maiden. Orlando Lassus 

Merry Life, A. Luigi Denza 

Miller's Wooing, The. Eaton Faning 

Nazareth. Charles Gounod 

O Holy Night. Adolph Adam 

O Italia, Italia, Beloved. Gaetano Donizetti 

Old Age (Der Greis). Franz Josef Haydn 

O My Love's Like a Red, Red Rose. G. M. Garrett 

O Who Will o'er the Downs so Free. R. L. DePearsall 



414 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Owl and the Pussy Cat, The. George Ingraham 

Pilgrim's Chorus, The (from I Lombardi). Giuseppe Verdi 

Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem. J. H. Maunder 

Praise Ye the Father. Charles Gounod 

Radiant Morn Hath Passed Away, The. Rev. H. H. Woodward 

Recessional, The. Reginald DeKoven 

Rest Thee my Little One. Thomas Facer 

Sands of Dee, The. G. A. MacFarren 

Santa Lucia. Italian 

See the Conquering Hero Comes (from Judas Maccabaeus). 

George Frederick Handel 
Skylark, The. Joseph Barnby 

Sleep while the Soft Evening Breezes. Sir Henry Bishop 
Soldiers' Chorus, The (from Faust). Charles Gounod 
Soldier's Life, The (from Pirates of Penzance). Arthur S. 

Sullivan 
Song of the Vikings. Eaton Faning 
Spring Song. Ciro Pinsuti 
Storm Fiend, The. Roeckel-Marshall 
Summer Morning. Henry Smart 
Swedish Peasants Wedding March. Aug. Soderman 
Sweet and Low. Joseph Barnby 
Sweet is Thy Mercy. Joseph Barnby 
Three Chafers, The (S.A.B.). H. Truhn 
To Thee O Country. Julius Eichberg 
Tyrolese Chorus (5 parts). Gioachino Rossini 
You Stole my Love. W. C. MacFarren 
Vesper Bell, The (S.A.B.). Sir Henry Bishop 
Vesper Bells, The. Julius Eichberg 
Vision, The. Faure-Marshall 
Watchword, The. Ciro Pinsuti 
Wiegenlied. J. L. Frank 
Ye Shall Dwell in the Land. John Stainer 

Choruses for unchanged voices 
The figures indicate the number of parts. 
Alphabet, The (3). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 
Angel, The (2). Anton Rubinstein 
Annie Laurie (4). Dudley Buck 
Ave Maria (3) (soprano or tenor obligato). Franz Abt 



MUSIC 415 

Ave Maria (2). Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 

Bird at Sea, The (3). Henry Smart 

Blow, Soft Winds (2). Charles Vincent 

Charity (3). Gioachino Rossini 

Cradle Song (i). Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 

Daffodils (3). King Hall 

Dinah Doe (4). Molloy-Edes 

Doris (3). Ethelbert Nevin 

Down in the Dewy Dell (3). Henry Smart 

Dragon Flies (3). W. Bargiel 

Dragon Flies (4). Graben-Hoffman 

Dream of Summer (3). Carl Busch 

Drift, my Bark (2). F. Kitcken 

Estudinatina (2). P. Lacome 

Fly, Singing Bird (3). Edward Elgar 

Glide On (3). L. Delibes 

Gondola, The (2). Henry Smart 

Gondolier, The (2). Henry Smart 

Hand in Hand We Hasten (3). Franz Abt 

Hark! The Sound of Evening Bells (2). Felix Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy 

He in Tears that Soweth (from A Song of Victory) (3). Ferdi- 
nand Hiller 

Hearts Feel that Love Thee (3). Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 

How Sweet the Moonlight (2). Wilfred Bendall 

I Would that My Love (2). Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 

Light (3). Carl Busch 

Light from Heaven, The (i). Charles Gounod 

List! The Cherubic Host (from the Holy City) (3). Alfred R. 
Gaul 

Lord is My Shepherd, The (2). Henry Smart 

Lord is My Shepherd. The (3). W. W. Gilchrist 

Lord is My Shepherd, The (4). Franz Schubert 

Lost Chord, The (4). Arthur S. SulHvan 

Love Song, A (3). Granville Bantock 

Lullaby (from Erminie) (3). Jakabrowski 

May Bells and the Flowers, The (2). Felix Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy 

May Song (2). Alfred R. Gaul 

May Song, A. (3). Carl Busch 

Merry June (2). Charles Vincent 



4l6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Miller's Song, The (4). Heinrich ZoUner 

My Lady Chlo (4). H. Clough-Leighter 

Nearest and Dearest (2). Luigi Caracciolo 

Night-Bells, The (2). Charles Vincent 

Night Has a Thousand Eyes, The (4). Ethelbert Nevin 

One Sweetly Solemn Thought (4). Ambrose-Anderson 

O Skylark, for thy Wing (3). Henry Smart 

O Wert Thou in the Cauld Blast (2). Felix Mendelssohn- 

Bartholdy 
Pure, Lovely Innocence (from Le Roi de Lahare) (2). J. 

Massenet 
Reapers, The (3). L. Clapisson 
Rockabye (4). W. H. NeidHnger 
Row us Swiftly (3). F. Campana 
Sing, Maiden, Sing (4). P. C. Lutkin 
Snow, The (4). Edward Elgar 
Snow in Spring (3). Carl Reinecke 
Song at Sunrise (3). Charles Fonteyn Manney 
Spinning Song (4). Richard Wagner 

Spring Chorus (from Samson and Delilah) (4). C. Saint Saens 
Spring Song (3). Oscar Weil 
Stars of the Summer Night. John E. West 
Swedish Peasants Wedding March (2). Aug. Soderman 
Sweet May (3). Joseph Barnby 
Sweet the Angelus (from King Rene's Daughter) (2). Henry 

Smart 
Twilight Star, The (3). Joseph Barnby 
Twenty Song Classics (i). Edited by Alys E. Bentley 
Waken, Waken, Day is Dawning (3). A. C. Mackensie 
Water Nymphs, The (3). Henry Smart 
When Life is Brightest (2). Ciro Pinsuti 
With Jamie in Command (i). George B. Nevin 
With the Stream (2). Berthold Tours 
Yet Once Again We Come (from Die Zauberflote) (3) Wolfgang 

Amadeus Mozart 

Cantatas for mixed voices 
Building of the Ship, The. Henry Lahee 
Fair Ellen. Max Bruch 
Gallia (Motett). Gounod 
Hear My Prayer. Mendelssohn 
Hero and Leander. Charles H. Lloyd 



MUSIC 417 

Holy Child, The. Thomas Adams 

Holy City, The. A. R. Gaul 

King Harold. F. Cunningham Woods 

May Day. G. A. MacFarren 

Messe Solennelle (St Cecilia Mass). Gounod 

On Shore and Sea. Arthur Sullivan 

Ruth. A. R. Gaul 

Wreck of the Hesperus, The. T. Anderton 

Cantatas for unchanged voices 
Flower Queen, The. Odoardo Barri 
Garden of Flowers, The. Luigi Denza 
Golden City, The. Franz Abt 
Into the World. Peter Benoit 
King Rene's Daughter. Henry Smart 
Lady of Shalott, The. Wilfred Bendall 
Legend of Bregenz, The. Wilfred Bendall 
Melusina. H. Hoffman 
Song Dances. Wilfred Bendall 
Summer. Wilfred Bendall 
Village Scenes. F. H. Cowen 

Dictation and melody writing 
Dictation and melody writing is a three hour course requir- 
ing a minimum of three recitation periods per week throughout 
the year. The course in choral singing and rudiments of music 
must be completed before dictation is begun. If the pupil has 
had no experience in music writing preparatory work is recom- 
mended preliminary to entrance into this course. This prepara- 
tory work should result in the ability to sing familiar songs at 
least by rote, and the ability to recognize and write nonmetrical 
scale passages in all major keys. 

Dictation 

Assuming that the members of the class are able to recognize 
and write nonmetrical scale passages in all major keys, sys- 
tematic work should be begun to the end that each student shall 
gain the power to think clearly in tone and to read and write 
music with facility. 

Correct methods of teaching the reading of music are strik- 
ingly similar to the most successful methods of teaching the 



4l8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

reading of the mother tongue. In each case the learner must 
be familiar with and have a clear notion of the thing to be rep- 
resented before any attempt is made at representation. We learn 
to speak a language before we read it. The ability to express 
the thought in words is a necessary preliminary to the study of 
reading and writing. No attempt is made to teach children or- 
adults to read until they can readily understand and speak the 
language. Likewise no attempt should be made to teach the read- 
ing of music until facility is reached in the oral expression. As 
speech includes all the elements to be recognized later in the 
representation, so the song contains all the material of the written 
tone language. 

Children speak the mother tongue for five years, gaining marvel- 
ous facility in its use and a large vocabulary before any effort 
is made to teach the representation. The attempt to reverse the 
natural order would be ridiculous. The attempt to teach the 
representation of the tone language, either to children or adults, 
before facility in the use of tone and rhythm is gained is not a 
whit less ridiculous and is quite as unpedagogical. Facility in the 
singing of songs is a necessary prerequisite to the study of sight 
singing. But this is not all that is necessary. The singing of 
songs gives a general impression of the effect of the elements 
of music but no definite knowledge of them ; no mental concep- 
tion of the scale tones equivalent to the clear notion the child 
has of the sound and meaning of words previous to his study 
of reading. Songs give him the " stories " in music but not the 
" words." As it is useless and unreasonable to require a pupil 
to read a sentence before he can recognize the sound and mean- 
ing of the words, so it is futile to ask a pupil to read a song at 
sight when he does not know the scale tones or the rhythms which 
compose the song. 

The key to the whole matter of reading is the ability to rec- 
ognize the sound and meaning of the words. The same is true 
of music reading. 

The first step in learning to read the mother tongue is to get 
a vocabulary, to know words. The first problem in music read- 
ing is to get a vocabulary, to know the elements of the language. 
As in reading, however, the student of singing must first gain 
facility in oral expression, be able to think in the tone language, 
and give expression to his thoughts in the singing of songs. 

It is vitally important therefore that the would-be music reader 
have a clear notion of the elements of the tone language before 



MUSIC 419 

he is asked to recognize them. These elements are meter, rhythm 
and the scale tones. Facility in the oral use of these elements 
is gained in the singing of songs, in dancing, walking and in many 
other ways. 

After five years' experience the child knows definitely the sound 
of each word he uses and readily recognizes each when it is 
spoken. Orally he has mastered the elements of the language. 
Show him an object and his mind recalls instantly its name and 
he speaks it without effort. A like mastery of the elements of 
the tone language must precede the attempt to teach the repre- 
sentation. The child does not first learn the sound of each letter 
because letters have a meaning to him only when combined in 
words. So in the tone language the learner does not study 
individual tones but combinations of tones which convey a 
musical thought. Tones are significant chiefly in their relation to 
each other. 

We can not think clearly of any object unless it has a name; 
hence the usefulness of the Italian syllables to assist in gaining a 
distinct mental concept of the scale tones and their relation to one 
another. 

It is essential then, while the rote song study is providing 
the general knowledge of the elements, that a definite " vocabu- 
lary " be secured through the study of the scale tones in their 
relation to each other by means of little phrase groups, using 
the syllable names. 

Whenever the student knows a musical phrase well enough to 
recognize it when it is sung or played, the representation may be 
shown, not before. In every case the thing should be known 
before the representation is made. This is vitally important in 
music reading where all of the subject-matter appeals especially 
to the sense of hearing and of rhythm. 

The foregoing statements are made to emphasize the principle 
that all the subject-matter in music should be presented to the 
ear first and that rote singing must precede sight singing. The 
temptation to reverse this order is greater perhaps in the high 
school than it is in the grades. Problems, both tonal and rhyth- 
mic, should be presented to the eye only after they are thor- 
oughly mastered through the sense of hearing. Adults, as well 
as children, should know the thing before they are required to 
recognize it. 

The ability to think in the tone language, which means the 
hearing of the music with the " inner ear," is the key to all 
27 



420 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

progress in reading and writing music. The student should be 
trained to see what he hears and hear what he sees, in music. 
No activity will produce this result so quickly and so surely as 
musical dictation properly conducted. A student trained in this 
way hears the tones and feels the rhythm when he looks at tne 
printed page of music, precisely as the reader of English gets the 
thought by silent reading. As the most important point in the 
conduct of a class in primary reading is that the child shall get 
the thought before he is allowed to try to express it, so it is 
of vital importance in elementary music reading that the reader 
shall hear the music by silent reading (perceive the thought) be- 
fore he is allowed to express it orally. 

Success in this study will depend upon the systematic appli- 
cation of the above principles, applied by means of individual 
work. One of the chief causes, undoubtedly the main cause, of 
the practical failure of music teaching in schools has been the 
mass method of instruction. As well might the attempt be made 
to teach reading by constantly re^ading in concert. None but a few 
leaders would ever become independent readers. The attempt to 
teach any language without individual recitation is utterly futile 
The concert method is an antiquated and unpedagogical inherit- 
ance received from the forerunner of school music, the district 
" singing school." This time-honored and valuable institution 
could not, for obvious reasons, provide individual instruction. 
Every teacher of music must get entirely away from the mass 
idea and apply precisely the same methods to the teaching of 
singing that the successful teacher employs in the teaching of 
reading. Not that chorus singing shall be abolished. The ability 
to sing intelligently in chorus is one of the chief aims of the 
instruction. In order that the language may be mastered, individ- 
ual recitation is as necessary in music study as in any other subject. 
Where pupils have not been accustomed to individual singing in 
the grades it will require tact and patience on the part of the 
teacher to introduce the practice of individual recitations in the 
music class in the high school. However, if individual work is 
begun at first it will soon be taken by the class as a matter of 
course as it is in other subjects. 

The aim of the course in dictation is to give the student the 
power to write any ordinary melodic phrase of two, three or four 
measures of moderate difficulty, after hearing it sung or played 
two or three times. 



MUSIC 421 

The ability to do this and to write original melodies in correct 
form with more or less facility is of inestimable value to each 
and every music student. It is conclusive evidence that the stu- 
dent can think clearly and express his thoughts accurately in the 
tone language, that he is practically conversant with and master 
of musical notation, and that he has a working knowledge of 
the tonal and rhythmic material of music. The student who has 
this power has an asset in music that is invaluable in every branch 
of music study. To the person who desires to teach music in 
the schools or elsewhere this training is of vital importance and 
is really necessary to success. 

Two distinct lines of dictation work should be begun and car- 
ried on simultaneously, viz : tone study and the study of meter 
and rhythm. 

Tone study 

As soon as the pupil can recognize little melodic groups like 
do, ti, la, ti, do, and do, re, me, re, do (always singing, never 
speaking the syllable names in response) the representation 
may begin. For example, the instructor plays for sings with a 

neutral syllable) ^ 

! ^&^=^^^= ^~^~~ g — ■s^^^=^^=^ | The pupil sings 



— . .. When the pupils can recognize these and 
^^^y similar scale passages the writing should 



do, ti, la. ti. do. begin, employing a variety of keys. This 
oral and written work should result in the ability to recognize, 
sing and write ordinary melodic passages employing easy skips. 
The method of learning skips should be simply the constant 
thinking of the scale, an interval or skip being considered as a 
part of the scale with one or more scale tones omitted. If a 



pupil fails to sing an interval, for instance — E ac rg- 



require him to sing (silently if possible) the intervening tones. 
The whole effort of the instructor should be to lead the student 
to think tones in terms of the scale. Progress in tonal study 
will depend on the ability to think (hear) the scale tones in 
silent singing. 

Study of meter and rhythm 
A piano (preferably a square or grand) is indispensable in the 
classroom. The instructor will play numerous familiar excerpts 
of a simple character in two or three part measure, with clearly 



422 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

marked accent, requiring the class to decide whether the meter 
is two or three part. It is well to require the class to mark 
the beats with the finger ("beat time") in all work of this 
character. 

When the class is able to recognize two and three part meas- 
ure, melodies, without bars or meter signature, should be given 
at every recitation, beginning with very simple rhythms. After 
hearing the melody played or sung one or more times, the 
students should be required to fill in the bars and meter signa- 
ture. It is essential that the three different kinds of notes 
ordinarily used for a beat unit shall be constantly employed 
(J J J ) ^^ ^^^ instruction is clear and definite the class will 
find no difficulty in mastering the different rhythmic problems 
which are surprisingly few and simple. It is essential that all 
rhythmic problems be first presented orally. 

A common but most unfortunate mistake of the music teacher is 
to confuse the two applications of the word beat. The practical 
meaning of the word to the reader of music is the motion of the 
conductor's baton. In this sense a note has either one, two, three 
or more beats, never a half beat. Teachers have given it another 
meaning, relating to its note and measure value which is confusing 
to the student of sight reading. It is recommended that the class 
be taught that each tone is to be sung either zvith the beat or after 
the beat. Thus in exercise 2 in the following rhythmic drills, 
the first sound is sung with the first beat and the second after 
the first beat. Again in exercise 5, the first sound is sung with 
the first and second beats and the second sound is sung after the 
second beat. This the learner will readily see by watching the 
finger while he marks the measure. 

One way to present new problems in rhythm is by means of 
the scale. The following rhythmic exercises employing the scale 
are suggestive only. The idea, if found useful, may be modified 
and adapted to the needs of different classes. 

RHYTHM DRILLS 
With scale 
These exercises should always be preceded by an oral presen- 
tation of the problem involved. After placing one or two meas- 
ures of the exercises upon the blackboard thus ^ « .. 

the teacher says " Sing the scale using this rhythm." All should 
beat steadily and continue the singing until the accent falls upon 



MUSIC 423 

the upper do, whenever that result is possible. All should be led 
to feel the motion of the rhythm before beginning to sing and to 
know when each tone is sung, i. e. whether with the beat, or after 
the beat. Constant and careful attention should be given to all 
conditions affecting quality of tone. By changing the key sig- 
nature to four flats the exercises may be used to advantage in 
the minor mode. All kinds of meters should be employed — 
two, three, four, six, nine, and twelve part, alternating the differ- 
ent representations of each. The key should be adapted to the 
voices ; for a mixed high school class a lower pitch should be used. 



424 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

1 One sound to the beat 



i 



T=F 



S# 



-1^ '5'- 



O g j 



4-^!-^ ^ 



■i9 (S^ 



& (2- 



E^ 



imti 



la 



lb 



^=f^ ^*^- 



:^ 



V-— h 



^ \^3. 



2 Two sounds to the beat 






•-—^ 



^ — #- 



^SETEt^S 



-«— 



r=f=p=i= 



:3^ 



• !» 



« *- 



^^^ 



i 



5 

1 Q^., r . 


___ 








— N- 




l#4--t= 


=E 





f- 


-•—r 


-J- 


'-}_ 



6 Three sounds to the beat 

3 



^ tJ 3 




etc. 



eJ^ 



7 Four sounds to the beat. 




j-J-^J etc. 






MUSIC 



425 



11 



i^^^^^- fef^nr g 



w 



m 



etc 



12 Syncopation 

'^ '^ 



lii^iis^ 



PS 



•H ete 



13 



14< 



^.fESg^^e. ^^^g^^^Sj 



15 



16 



3#^^^tPi 



H«— ^ 



P 



/^ ^ 


/' 


s 


1^ 


K 


V 1 '? r 


• • 


« 


■■ P 1 


CD 4 


— S" 


f- 


^-4- 


^ 




I' 


y^ 




i 


t/ 






^.^ 



17 Doublet 






-A V 



?==3= 



I 



^ i etc. 



18 Triplet 



19 



te^^i^^^^- ^i?i^^§ 




20 Beginning after the beat 



l^-- 



:5-t^^t 



# # - 



-J__^_^ 



■iT — f^ — ^ — ^- 



-«—^—*— \- 



-^-N- 



:=t- ; J f =:q=g 



—i^_ 



=P=z 



i=^ 



426 



THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 



As soon as the student has mastered the simpler tonal and 
rhythmic problems, the work in dictation naturally combines the 
tonal and rhythmic study by means of written dictation. Material 
for dictation should be gleaned from all available sources. A 
great amount and variety of material should be used. A good 
textbook containing abundant material will be found necessary. 
The instructor should not miss the opportunity to dictate parts 
of the beautiful melodies of the best composers. A portion of 
Beethoven's Hymn to Joy from the Ninth Symphony, for instance, 
is entirely practical for dictation and much more interesting and 
beneficial to the student than the continued use of uninspired and 
uninteresting exercises made to order for dictation. The Bee- 
thoven melody and similar ones may be given, one phrase at a 
time, and the entire melody sung by the class from their own 
papers when completed. The melody referred to begins as follows : 




-i^—t- 



I 



:±^=£: 



if ■& 



Rudiments of music 
The course in the rudiments of music requires a knowledge of 
notation and terminology. Under notation, the use and the de- 
rivation of the signs employed should be familiar to the student. 
Under terminology, the root meanings of words, and their appli- 
cations to music should be known. 



Notation 
This includes signs for notes and rests, key signatures in major 
and minor and meter signatures. 
The single and double bars 
Symbols affecting the interpretation, such as the Ferm?ta, 

various staccato signs, crescendo and diminuendo signs 
The tie and slur 
Legato signs 

The dot after the note and rest 
The F and G clefs 
Accent marks 

Special note groups, like the doublet, triplet, quadruplet etc. 
The metronome mark and its equivalent, as near as may be in 

Italian terms 



MUSIC 427 

Terminology 

This includes a knowledge of the most usually employed 
Italian musical terms. As stated above, a knowledge of the root 
meanings of words is especially recommended. This makes it 
plain to the student that, as a rule, music terms applied especially 
to speed, are merely relative, referring to mood rather than to 
tempo. 

Abbreviations of musical terms. 

Theory 
The scales, major and minor, with, and without, signatures, and 

of the minor mode in three forms. 
The chromatic scale as an ascending and descending melodic 

passage. 
The number name of intervals : primes, seconds, thirds, fourths, 

fifths, sixths, sevenths, eighths and ninths. 

Suggested text 
For the study of music terms and signs : 
Elson, Louis C. Dictionary of Music 

Melody writing for high schools 

The teachers' attention is called to the course in music writing 
under the courses of study for special schools of music. 

As a concomitant of sight reading, dictation, and choral inter- 
pretation, melody writing is of great value in its contributory in- 
fluence. The student may show little, or much, originality in this 
form of writing, but all students can master to a degree the 
mechanism of melodic structure, and thus gain more intimate 
acquaintance with the laws of music. While the practice in melody 
writing is continuing, it will be found that the form structure 
of the melody line in choral music is quickly recognized ; the 
feeling for cadence and for secjuence is established ; the capacity 
to read by phrases (rather than from note to note) is accjuired ; 
in brief, the music sense is established and all music effort is 
infinitely improved. 

While the following course is somewhat brief and simple, it 
must not be forgotten that the benefits of melody writing, like 
the results from the writing of English, come only from a great 
amount of practice. Therefore, considerable time can profitably 
be spent in each idiom, and while the facility in music writing 
is becoming established no opportunity should be lost, either in 



428 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

the recitations in choral music or in dictation, to analyze music 
for practice on the basis of the phrase and period structure; on 
the basis of the rhythmic form employed by the composer; and, 
lastly, as regards the simpler modulation (and the nonmodulatory 
use of chromatics). This work in correlation between reading and 
writing music will produce a solid musicianship that can not other- 
wise be obtained. 

The requirements in melody writing are : 

1 The phrase of four measures, in all keys, and in the simpler 

meters ;^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ('at first along the scale 
V^ 424040 oj 

line only, employing no skips. 

2 The phrase of four measures, including gradually the sim- 
pler melodic skips: the major and minor thirds; the perfect 
and diminished fourths; the perfect and diminished fifths; 
the major and minor sixths; the minor seventh (on the 
dominant) ; and the perfect octave. 

3 The further practice of the preceding principles applied to the 
eight measure period. 

4 The phrase of four measures, introducing two sounds to the 

beat. 

5 The phrase of four measures, introducing sol, fi, sol, and all 
its equivalents in the major scale. 

6 The phrase of four measures, introducing do, te, la. 

7 Items 4, 5, and 6 in the eight measure period. 

8 Simple modulations applied in the eight measure period. 

The modulations occurring at the end of the first phrase 

and the return to the original key at the end of the second 

phrase. The following only: 
a From the tonic to the dominant and return through 

sol, a, sol. 
b From the tonic to the subdominant and return through 

do, te, la. 
b From the tonic to the subdominant and return through 

la, si, la. 

9 Amplification of the rhythmic movement by the addition of 
the dotted quarter and eighth notes in meters of four, and 
the equivalent in other meters. ,„ , . , , » ,^ 

Music appreciation 

The considerable attention which is being directed to the 
subject of music appreciation in many high schools, is pro- 



MUSIC 429 

ducing excellent results in many ways. Primarily, where good 
music is being presented (by one or more of the means ' now 
available) the listening faculty is stimulated and exercised to 
an extent that produces actual cultural attainment of high 
order — particularly when the performance of music is accom- 
panied by explanatory lectures or informal talks on the music 
performed. 

And not only is there great value in the cultural attainment 
thus resulting, but valuable correlation work is possible, par- 
ticularly with general history and literature ; for the works of 
great composers are art types which are as significant of the 
spirit of the time that produced them, as are works in painting, 
in prose or in verse. Thus to establish in the student's mind a 
group of art types in music definitely correlated with literature 
and with social activity as related in history, provides to him 
a cultural knowledge and appreciation of music that is excep- 
tionally valuable. 

High school music can contribute to the students' knowledge 
of works studied appreciatively, two distinct types of form and 
experience. 

1 The one resulting from participation in choral singing, 
which, if done thoroughly, will develop the technical and inter- 
pretative skill of the student and acquaint him with an exten- 
sive and interesting literature. 

2 That resulting from works performed, otherwise than by 
the students themselves. In this department of high school 
music, it is possible to present (with as much explanatory data 
of biography, history, and the like, as is thought necessary) 
practically all the forms that can not be produced by high 
school students. These embrace the instrumental forms in solo, 
chamber music, and orchestral arrangements ; and particularly 
the solos which are so intimately related interpretatively with 
choral singing. 

Whatever means may be selected to accomplish this work in 
appreciation, the teacher will find that its benefits to the stu- 
dent are definite. The musical horizon is broadened, the listen- 
ing faculty is keenly developed, the appreciative faculty is 
aroused, a wider mentality is obtained, and the music sense is 
stimulated to an extent beyond what is possible by school sing- 
ing alone. While counts are not allowed for courses in music 
appreciation, the subject-matter becomes valuable in its close 
relation, as already stated, with literature and history, and it 



430 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

may be easily related to these courses in work in English and in 
history. 

Music texts for a high school library 

Many high schools have incorporated music book collections 
as a part of the general school library. Such books are indis- 
pensable in schools where music appreciation is practised. 
While a large number of texts could be selected as valuable 
reference works in music, the following few titles will be found 
fundamentally valuable : 

Lanier, Sidney, Music and Poetry 

Tapper, Thomas. First Studies in Music Biography 

Grove, Sir George. Dictionary of Music and Musicians 

Krehbiel, H. E. How to Listen to Music 

Fillmore, J. C. Lessons in Musical History 

Pratt, W. S. The History of Music 

Henderson, W. J. The Orchestra 

Finck, H. T. Songs and Song Writers 

Goepp, P. H. Symphonies and Their Meanings 

Elson, Louis C. Music Dictionary 

Baker, Theodore. Biographical Dictionary of Musicians 

Upton, George P. The Standard Cantatas 

— The Standard Operas 

— The Standard Oratorios 

— The Standard Symphonies 

Dickinson, Edward. The Study of the History of Music 

Parry, C. H. H. Evolution of the Art of Music 

Grove, Sir George. Beethoven and his Nine Symphonies 

For works on special subjects, see the bibliography given with 
each course in parts A and B of this syllabus. 

B COURSE FOR MUSIC SCHOOLS 

VOICE COURSE 

The course of study for the voice covers a period of three 
years. 

All students of the voice course are required to pass an exam- 
ination in pianoforte playing, at least to the extent of the third 
grade, as given in this syllabus. 

Further, for graduation from the voice course, the student is 
required to pass the examination in music theory, consisting of '. 



MUSIC 431 

Dictation 
Melody writing 
Harmony and counterpoint 
Music form and analysis 
Music history and acoustics 

For details of this examination, see page 445 of this syllabus. 

The voice course is outlined for a period of three years. In 
these three years the fundamental training should be given, 
musical as well as vocal, which every student needs — whether 
a career as teacher or as performer is the ultimate object. After 
finishing the three years' course the students will find themselves 
sufficiently prepared to begin the special studies which the chosen 
career requires (study of parts in operas, oratorios, songs for use 
in concert, etc.). 

First year 

Technic. Correct principles of singing: relaxation, breathing 
and tone placing. The teacher should not allow the use of 
force at first but insist upon ease of production and refinement 
of tone. The exercises for the placing and the development of 
the voice should be musically as simple as possible so that the 
student can concentrate on the tone production. The teacher 
will find it easy and practical to construct a number of simple 
exercises: parts of scales, scales and arpeggios. More elab- 
orate exercises can be selected from vocal methods like Garcia's, 
Joseph Smith's (Voice and Song) and others. 

Vocalises 

F. Sieber. Op. 92-97 for corresponding voices 
Concone. Op. 9 and similar studies 

Songs. Songs should be selected mainly from folk songs and 
the classical repertoire, and should be sung in English. While 
it is recognized that the English translations are often less 
effective than the original text, they yet have the advantage of 
giving the opportunity to study English diction, which should 
come first. 

Examinations. It must be recognized that the development 
of vocal skill can not as a rule show the same regularity as that 
in theoretical subjects; the student may have to struggle with 
a difficulty which makes it impossible to show any vocal ability 
at all, while after that difficulty has been overcome the student 
may show decided talent and make rapid progress. It is there- 



432 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

fore only at the end of the three years that the actual accom- 
plishment in vocal skill can be put to a severe test. 

Small songs like the following may be given for examination 
at the end of the first year: 

Folk songs : The Blue Bells of Scotland 

All Through the Night (Welsh Air) 

Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes (Old English) 
Mendelssohn. Op. 9 No. 5 In Autumn 

Op. 8 No. 7 May-Song 

Op. 99 No. 3 The Favorite Spot 
Weber. Cradle Song. 

Second year 

Technic. The technical work of the second year is the log- 
ical continuation of the first year's work. Ease of production, 
quality of tone, range and power are developed, bad habits are 
overcome and correct ones acquired. 

Vocalises, To the material given in the first year should be 
added : 

Salvatore Marchesi. Op. 15 twenty elementary and pro- 
gressive vocalises 
Concone. Op. 10 twenty-five lessons 

Op. 17 forty lessons for bass (for bass and low 
baritone) 
Songs. Songs like the following should be satisfactorily ren- 
dered at examination : 

MacDowell. Op. 47 No. i The Robin Sings in the Apple- 
tree 
Mendelssohn. Op. 71 No. 3 To the Distant One 

Op. 47 No. 6 By the Cradle 
Franz. Op. 5 No. 5 Maid with Lips Like Roses Blooming 

Op. 9 No. 3 Entreaty 
Schumann. Op. 127 No. 2 Thy Lovely Face 
Op. 79 No. 14 Ladybird 

Third year 
Technic, With normal development the voices will differen- 
tiate more and more, and greater discrimination than in the pre- 
ceding years will be found necessary in selecting exercises and 
songs for high, medium and low voices. 



MUSIC 433 

Vocalises 

Bordogni. 24 Easy Vocalises 
Panofka. Op. 81 Bk 2 

Concone. Op. 17 is recommended for bass and low baritone 
(for continued study or for review). 

Final examinaticm. If at the end of the first and of the 
second year the student does show satisfactory progress in all 
subjects except in vocal technic, promotion to the higher class 
is recommended since during the third year the voice may de- 
velop with greater speed. But at the final examination the following 
technical requirements must be met : 

The quality of each voice should be good (considering the 
natural quality of each voice as the standard to go by). 
Throughout the range of each voice, scales must be sung in piano 
and in forte, up and down, without showing an abrupt change of 
quality in changing from one tone to another, not showing any 
undue effort in ascending or descending. 

Throughout the range of the voice the singer should be able 
to hold each tone and to swell and diminish it to some extent. 

Songs. Songs like the following should in addition, show 
correct articulation, pronunciation and interpretation : 

SOPRANO AND TENOR 

Purcell. Nymphs and Shepherds 

Mendelssohn. Op. 34 No. i Old German Love-song 

Schubert. Op. 20 No. 2 Faith in Spring 

Franz. Op. 10 No. 2 Silent Safety 

SOPRANO 

Handel. "As When the Dove" (from Acis and Galatea) 

SOPRANO 

Mendelssohn. "Be Thou Faithful unto Death" (from 
St Paul) 

MEZZO-SOPRANO AND HIGH BARITONE 

MacDowell. Op. 26 No. 5 The Blue Bell 

Schumann. Op. 35 No. 4 Earliest Green 

Beethoven. The Faithful Johnie 

Schubert. Who is Sylvia? 

Franz. Op. 5 No. i From Grief I Cannot Measure 



434 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

ALTO, BASS AND LOW BARITONE 

Schubert. Op. 88 No. 4 To Music 

Franz. Op. 14 No. i Dedication 

MacDowell, Op. 47 No. 3 Folksong 

Schumann. Op. 45 No. 2 Springtime Wandering 

ALTO 

Mendelssohn. "But the Lord is Mindful of His Own" (from 
St Paul) 

BASS AND LOW BARITONE 

Haydn. "With Eagerness the Husbandman" (from The 
Seasons) 

Bibliography 
Mills, Wesley, Voice Production in Singing and Speaking 
Mackenzie, Morell, Hygiene of the Vocal Organs 
Miller, F. E. The Voice 

Taylor, David C. The Psychology of Singing 
Henderson, W. J. The Art of the Singer 

PIANO COURSE 

The course in pianoforte playing covers a period of six years. 

The full requirements of the course include all the work that 
follows, and, in addition, the course in music theory [see p. 445] 
comprising the subjects of: 

Dictation and melody writing 

Harmony and counterpoint 

Music form and analysis 

Music history and acoustics 

Neither the art of teaching nor the varying demands of indi- 
vidual pupils can be adequately described in an outline of study. 
For this reason the following course confines itself to the state- 
ment of material arranged for six years or grades. Naturally 
all conditions which make for adequate control of hand, arm, 
fingers, wrist, and the physical mechanism generally, must be 
left to the teacher to impart as individual conditions and pecu- 
liarities demand. 

Nor is any attempt made in the following bibliography to enforce 
or even to suggest " method." Any method of piano teaching 
that pays heed to the prime requisites of the interpretation 
of music through the piano as a means of expression, is 



MUSIC 435 

worthy of respect and should be left to the teacher to apply- 
as conditions demand. Hence, the teacher may follow any 
system or method acquired or formulated which leads to the 
right interpretation of piano classics. The amount of good 
pianoforte music available for teaching purposes and for reper- 
toire, is so great that a syllabus can include but a small per 
cent of it. What is given here has been selected with care ; it 
is ample to prepare the pupil for advancement from grade to 
grade. If thoroughly taught, it will result in the acquirement 
of technic and of interpretative ability that will render the pupil 
sufficiently independent to read freely in the domain of this lit- 
erature to the point to which he has progressed. It is especially 
recommended, as the pupil advances from grade to grade, that 
he be encouraged to read a considerable amount of music of the 
preceding grade or grades. This will extend his acquaintance 
in the literature, giving him facility in reading and increasing 
his fluency of expression, by bringing to his attention all the range 
of piano idioms. 

With the piano study the courses in music dictation and in 
general music theory should proceed hand in hand. This study, 
when developed along with instrumental study, leads the pupil 
to the analysis of chords, of harmonic progression, and of form 
structure. Lacking this knowledge of music, interpretation 
must necessarily fail to be fully expressive of the author's 
meaning. 

Time and patience are fundamental requisites in acquiring 
what we may call " piano power." Regularity of practice, the 
opportunity to hear good music frequently, wide reading of 
music simpler than that which constitutes the lesson assign- 
ment, are essential to the desired attainment of power. 

It is earnectly recommended that teachers become acquainted 
if possible, with the instrument on which a pupil practises ; that 
they advise in regard to its care and its being kept in tune. 
Further, the teacher should be interested to see that pupils acquire 
a liking for good music, and whenever possible, for good books 
about music. 

In the beginning, frequent short lessons are preferable to less 
frequent long lessons. The teacher should supervise, when pos- 
sible, the practice periods throughout the first year, or a por- 
tion of it, until assured that correct habits of study and practice 
are acquired. More harm results from neglecting this in the 
28 



436 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

beginning, than from almost all other causes. Careful super- 
vision during the first few months of practice often results in 
awakening latent power in pupils, who might otherwise never 
attain the results of the fulness of their natural gift. 

The following material is arranged under the headings of 
technic, studies, pieces, sight reading, four-hand music, and 
classics. The selections are easily obtainable. Many " edi- 
tions " are available that are carefully edited by authoritative 
teachers ; the instructor's choice in this matter should always 
be based on a comparative study of qualities when more than one 
edition is in question. 

In conclusion, the teacher is urged to insist upon the acquire- 
ment of a repertoire, however limited and simple, for each 
grade, so that the actual results of having mastered some types 
of music may be made evident at any time. A repertoire piece 
should never tax the pupils' technical or interpretative capacity 
to the straining point ; that is, pieces to be learned for perform- 
ance should permit freedom within the domain of the pupils' 
acquirement. 

Grade I 

Technic and studies 
C. Gurlitt. Technic and Melody, book I 
L. Kohler. Op. 157 

Stephen Emery. Head and Hands (for suggestive work) 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies, book I 
Carl Loeschhorn. Op. 65 (the simpler numbers) 
H. Bertini. Op. 166 

Pieces 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Pieces, book I 
R. Schumann. Op. 68 (first 10 numbers) 

Grade II 

Technic and studies 
C. Gurlitt. Technic and Melody, book H 

Op. 187 
F. Lecouppey. Op. 17 (The Alphabet) 
A. Sartorio. Op. 394 
J. Vogt. Op. 124 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies, book II 



MUSIC 437 

Pieces 
R. Schumann. Op. 68 (about 20 numbers) 

H. Behrens. Op. 70 (to be used in first study in transposition) 
H. Bertini. 12 Little Pieces and Preludes 
A. Ehmant. 36 Rhythmical Pieces 
C. Gurlitt. Album Leaves, op. 140 

Op. loi 
L, E. Orth. Mother Goose Songs without Words 

Sight reading 
Thomas Tapper. Sight Reading and Memory Lessons 

Four hands 

F, Behr. 36 Melodic Pieces 

Arthur Foote. 12 Duets on Five Notes 

A. Loeschhorn. 10 Children's Pieces, op. 182 

C. Reinecke, 10 Short Pieces, op. 213 

Grade III 

Technic and studies 

C. Gurlitt. Technic and Melody, book III 

H. Behrens. School of Velocity, op. 61 

C. Czerny. Preparatory Studies, op. 636 

S. Heller. Op. 47 (the simpler numbers) 

F. Lecouppey. L'agilite. op. 20; Rhythms, op. 22 

A. Loeschhorn. Op. 65, book III (as review) 

J. Vogt. 24 Studies (in all keys), op, 122 

H. Bertini. Op. 29, 32 

C. Gurlitt. Trill Studies, op. 142 

Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies, book III 

Pieces 

C. Reinecke. Home Music, op. yy 

L. van Beethoven. Sonatas, op. 49, nos. i, 2 

M. Clementi. Sonatines, op. 36, 38 

N. W. Gade. Children's Christmas Eve, op. 36 

C. Gurlitt. Album, op. 62 

F. Hiller. Selected Piano, op. 79 

F. Kuhlau. Sonatines, op. 55 (the more difficult numbers) 

J. S. Bach. Little Preludes and Fugues 



438 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

S. Heller. Album Leaves, op. 83 

H. Reinhold. Suite, op. 45 ; Suite, op. 27 

Thomas Tapper. Graded Pieces, book III 

Sight reading 
A. Ellmenreich. Op. 14 
S. Jadassohn. Op. 17 

E. Parlow. Op. 42 

L. Schytte. Short Pieces, op. 94 

Four hands 
A. Diabelli. Three Sonatines 
C. Gurlitt. Op. 102 

F. Kuhlau. Sonatine, op. 44 
J. Low. Paul and Virginia 
M. Schultze. Recreations 

Other classics 
J. S. Bach. 25 two-part studies (Faelten) 
W. A. Mozart. Rondo D. Major 
Sonata C. Major 
Sonata G. Major 
L. van Beethoven. Fiir Elise Selections (from Variations) 

7 Bagatelles, op. 33 
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. Six Pieces, op. 72 
Robert Schumann. 3 Sonatines, op. 118 

Grade IV 

Technic and studies 
A. Foote. Op. 2y, 9 studies for technical development 
C. Gurlitt. Op. 91 (daily studies) 
J. B. Cramer. 30 Etudes (Biilow) 
S. Heller. Op. 45, 46 

Op. 16 
A. Jensen. Op. 32 

E. MacDowell. Etudes for Style, op. 39 
C. Czerny. Op. 740 
L Moscheles. Short Preludes, op. y;^ 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies IV 
P. E. Bach. Solfeggietto, C. minor 
65 Sonatas (Biilow) 



MUSIC 439 

L. van Beethoven. Rondo, op. 51, no. i 

Variations on a Russian Dance 
M. Clementi. Sonatas, nos. i, 3, 5, 6 
J. Field. Nocturnes 
E. Grieg. Op. 41, no. i ; op. 3, 6, 28 
E. MacDowell. Woodland Sketches, op. 51 
M. Moszkowski. Op. 28 (five pieces) 
I. J. Paderewski. Minuet, op. 14 

E. Schiitt. Op. 16, 17, 34 
R. Schumann. Op. 15 

A. Dvorak. Valse Gracieuse 

A. Rubinstein. Melody in F, op. 3 

R. Volkmann. Wayside Sketches, op. 23 

Thomas Tapper. Graded Pieces (IV) 

Sight reading 

C. Gurlitt. Op. 203 

C. Reinecke. Op. 109 

N. von Wilm. Op. 24 (ten pieces) 

H. A. Wollenhaupt. Eight Favorite Pieces 

Four hands 
M. Moszkowski. Op. 5, Five Waltzes 
A. Parlow. The Seasons 

F. Schubert. 16 Marches 
R. Volkmann. Op. 11 

J. Raff. Op. 82 (12 duets) 

Other classics 
J. S. Bach. 25 Three Part Studies (Faelten) 

Partitas, nos. i, 2 
W. A. Mozart. Sonatas 
L. van Beethoven. Rondo in G, op. 51, no. 2 

The Easier Sonatas 
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. Songs without Words 

Three Fantasies, op. 16 
Characteristic Pieces, op. 7 
F. Chopin. Preludes, op. 28 (the easier selections) 

Nocturnes, op. 9, no. 2 ; op. ^2, nos. 1-2 
Mazurkas, op. 6. no. 4; op. i, nos. i to 5 
Waltzes, op. 18, 34 (2 and 3) 



440 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Grade V 

Technic and studies 

E. Neupert. Twelve Octave Studies 

T. Kullak. Octave Studies 

I. Moscheles. 24 Studies, op. 70 

Op. 51 
C. Reinecke. Op. 121 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies V 

In this, and in the preceding grades, careful selection of octave 
studies will lead to simpler works than are mentioned here, as 
individual cases may require. 

Pieces 

E. Grieg. Op. 19, Norwegian Folklife 
G. Handel. Suites, 2 books 

F. Hiller. Op. 81, Short Pieces 

F. Liszt. Consolations and Love Dreams 

E. MacDowell. Op. 19, no. 4, Dance of the Dryads 
M. Moszkowski. Op. 36, 8, Morceaux Caracteristiques 

J. Raff. Op. 162, Suite, G Minor, Elegie, Folksong with varia- 
tions. Rustic Waltz, Fairy Tale 

F. Schubert. Sonatas, especially A minor, op. 42; D major, op. 55 
C. Sgambatti. Toccata, A flat major 

Minuetto Vecchio 
C. M. von Weber. Rondo brilliante E flat major 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Pieces V 
C. M. von Weber. Invitation to the Dance 

Ensemble music for grades V and VI should be chosen, if oppor- 
tunity permits, for performance with violin, voice, cello, and for 
two pianos, four hands. 

Grade VI 

Studies 
J. L. Nicodi. Op. 12, Concert Studies 
M. Moszkowski. Op. 42 
F. Chopin. Preludes and Studies 

S. Heller. Op. 127, Freischiitz. Studies, on themes from 
Weber's opera 



MUSIC 441 

A, Henselt. Op. 2, 12, Concert Studies 

Op. 5, 12, Concert Studies 
I. Moscheles. Op. 95, 12, Characteristic Studies 
Thomas Tapper. Graded Studies (VI) 
H. Seeling. Op. 10 (10 Concert Studies) 

Pieces 

J. Brahms. Op. 117, 118, 119, Intermezzi, etc. 

A. Henselt. Op. i, Concert Variations 

J. N. Hummel. Op. 18, Fantasie, E flat major 

F. Liszt. Annees de Pelerinage, no. 2, Au Lac de Wallenstadt 
Cajus Animam. Air du Stabat Mater, by Rossini 

Schubert-Liszt. Soirees de Vienne, 2 books 

A. Rubinstein. Barcarolles, no. 4, G major; no. 5, A minor 

C. Saint-Saens. 6 Transcriptions from Bach, Gavotte in B minor ; 
Gavotte in E, published separately 

Wagner-Brassin. Magic Fire, from Walkiire 

V. M. von Weber. Op. 79, Concertstiick. With second piano- 
forte in score 

Thomas Tapper. Graded Pieces (VI) 

Other classics 
For use in Grades V and VI 
J. S. Bach. Well Tempered Clavichord 
English Suites 
French Suites 
Fantasies 

Fugue in A minor 
W. A. Mozart. Selected Concertos 

L. van Beethoven. The medium and most difficult sonatas 
Fantasies, op. yy 
32 Variations, C minor 
Variations on a Theme by Diabelli 
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 3 Preludes and 3 Etudes, op. 104 

Capriccio, op, 5 
Rondo, op. 14 

6 Preludes and Fugues, op. 35 
Variations, D minor, op. 54 
Prelude and Fugue, E minor 
Capriccio, B minor, op. 22 
Rondo, E flat, op. 29 



442 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

F. Chopin. Selections for the Preludes, Nocturnes, Waltzes, 
Ballads, Polonaises 
Berceuse, op. 51 
Fantasie, op. 49 
2 Sonatas 
Robert Schumann. Variations, op. i 

Papillons, op. 2 

DavidsbiJndler, op. 6 

Humoreske, op. 20 

Novelettes, op. 21 

Carnival, op. 9 

Carnival, op. 26 

Paganini Etudes, op. 3 

Sonata, F sharp minor 

Etudes Symphoniques, op. 13 

Kreisteriana, op. 16 

Fantasie, op. 17 

Sonata, G minor 

ORGAN COURSE 
The course in organ playing covers a period of three years. 
For graduation from this course, the student is required to 
pass the examination in musical theory, comprising the sub- 
jects of: 

Dictation and melody writing 
Harmony and counterpoint 
Music form and analysis 
Music history and acoustics 
Pupils beginning the study of the organ should have completed 
the third grade of the piano course and should continue a partial 
study of the piano throughout the course. 

First year 

Stainer. Organ Primer 

Rink. Organ School, parts I, II 

M'erkel. Organ School 

Bach. Eight Easy Preludes and Fugues 

Buck. Studies in Pedal Phrasing, book I 

Volckmar. Three Adagios, op. 256 

Easy pieces by Smart, Guilmant, Hollins, Lemare and others. 



MUSIC 443 

The acquirement of a clean and fluent legato touch on manual 
and pedal keyboards, the independence of feet and hands, and the 
elementary principles of registration are the essential objects to 
be sought. 

For examination, the student should present one of the above 
preludes and fugues of Bach and a short, easy modern piece. 

Second year 

Bach. Little G Minor Fugue (Bk IV, No. 7, Peter's edition) 
Prelude and Fugue in E Minor (Bk III, No. 10) 
Prelude and Fugue in C Major (Bk II, No. i) 
Toccata and Fugue, D Minor (Bk IV, No. 4) " 
Prelude and Fugue in D Major (Bk IV, No. 3) 

Buck. Studies in Pedal Phrasing, books I, II 

Handel. Concerto No. 5 

Mendelssohn. Sonata No. 2, in C Minor 

Rheinberger. Sonata No. 4, in A Minor 

Guilmant. Sonata No. 4, in D Minor 

Merkel. Sonata No. 4, in F Minor 
Concert Adagio, op. 35 
Pastorale, op. 103 

Pieces by Guilmant, Dubois, Hollins, Lemare, Wolfsenholme and 
others 

For examination, the student should be prepared to play from 
the above list a composition by Bach, a sonata, and a short mod- 
ern piece. 

Third year 

Bach. Trio Sonatas Nos. i, 2 
St Ann's Fugue 

Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (Bk II, No. 6) 
Prelude and Fugue in D Minor (Bk II, No. 10) 
Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (Bk II, No. 8) 
Toccata in F Major 
Fantasie qind Fugue in G Minor (Bk II, No. 4) 

Rheinberger. Sonata Pastorale 

Mendelssohn, Sonata No. i, in F Minor 

Sonata No. 4, in B Flat Major 

Merkel. Sonata No. 2, G Minor 

Guilmant. Sonata No. i, in D Minor 
Sonata No. 5, in C Minor 



444 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Handel. Concerto No. 6 
Thiele. Chromatic Fantasie 

Hesse. Introduction, Theme, and Variations in A 
Smaller pieces by French, English, and American composers 
Exercises in modulation, transposition, and improvisation 
Organ accompaniment and elementary principles of organ con- 
struction 
Practice in sight reading of vocal score (4 staves), in G and F 
clefs 

For examination, the student should be prepared to play from 
the above list a composition by Bach, a sonata, and a short mod- 
ern piece. Tests should also be given in reading from vocal score, 
in playing at sight an organ trio (two manuals and pedal), in 
transposition and modulation, in harmonizing at sight a given 
melody, and in filling up at sight a figured bass. 

VIOLIN COURSE 

The course of study for violin covers a period of five years, 
or grades. The etudes, technics, pieces, and ensemble music of 
which the course is composed should be regarded as the mini- 
mum requirement. The teacher will consequently make as 
great an amplification of the course as individual demands make 
necessary. 

In order to meet the full requirements in the violin course, the 
student must pass a satisfactory examination in all the work out- 
lined for piano in the first and second grades. In addition to this, 
it is required of violin students to pass the examination in music 
theory. The requirements in music theory are: 

Dictation and melody writing 

Harmony and counterpoint 

Music form and analysis 

Musical history and acoustics 

Grade I 
Etudes. De Beriot's School to the end of the first position 
Mazas Petit Methode 

Hermann, F., first part (30 special studies) from op. 24 with 
second violin accompaniment 
Technics. All scales in first position in all bowings (from 
memory) 



MUSIC 445 

Pieces. Wilhelmj-Brown, 12 Christmas Carols 

Papini — Book I of 24 Lec^ons Melodiques elementaires 

Ensemble. Pleyel Duets : 6 duets, op. 8 

25 Pieces in the first position arranged by George Lehman 
— Schirmer Ed. 

Grade II 

Etudes. De Beriot's School up to and including the third position 
Dont, J. Progressive exercises op. 38, with second violin 
accompaniment 
Technics. All scales up to and including third position in 
all legato and staccato bowings (from memory) ; also scales 
in detached octaves and harmonics, to induce well rounded 
position of left hand 
Ensemble. Mozart sonatas for violin and piano Nos. I, IV 
Duets. Jansa. Books I, II, III 

Grade III 

Etudes. De Beriot's School up to and including fifth position 
Kreutzer. First ten exercises 
Sevcik. Op. 8 and 9; Casorti bowing exercises 

Technics. All scales up to an including fifth position; in 
thirds up to and including third position ; in sixths up to 
and including fifth position ; bound octaves four to a bow up 
to and including third position ; the same in harmonics 

Solos. Bach concertos in A minor ; double concerto for two 
violins 

Ensemble. Mozart sonatas ; Handel sonatas ; Haydn sonatas 

Grade IV 

Etudes. Spohr's School encire 

Kreutzer, the first 20 etudes 
Technics. Scales up to and including seventh position 

Halir scale studies for fluency, the first three pages 
Solos. Bach concerto E major; sonatas for violin alone, Pre- 
ludium E major, Gavotte E major 

Mozart concerto in E flat 

Viotti No. 22 

Rode No. 8 
Ensemble. Beethoven Sonatas Nos. i, 2, 3, 4, 5 



446 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Grade V 

Etudes. Kreutzer — all 

Dont. Gradus, ad Parnassum, Fiorillo. Etudes. Rode 
Etudes 
Technics. . Halir Scale Studies 

Wilhelmj studies in thirds 
Solos. Bach sonatas for violin alone (selected) 

Tartini. Devil's Trill 

Saint Saens. Rondo Capricioso 

Wieniawski. Second Concerto, first movement 

Mendelssohn. First and second movements from concerto 
Ensemble. Beethoven sonatas 

Grieg sonatas 

Schumann sonatas 

MUSIC THEORY 

Comprising dictation, melody writing, harmony and counterpoint, 
music form and analysis, music history, acoustics. 

The course in general music theory is designed as required work 
to accompany the courses in piano, organ, violin and voice. 

The work is outlined in units of one year's study, but this 
division is somewhat elastic except in its general application to 
courses for voice and instruments. 

DICTATION 
For particulars of this course, see page 416 of the requirements 
for secondary schools. 

MELODY WRITING FOR STUDENTS OF MUSIC SCHOOLS 
Melody writing forms a practical application at once to dicta- 
tion, composition, notation and music form. By the practice of 
melody writing, the student becomes familiar with the following 
topics through the art of construction, there being a distinct gain 
resulting in familiarity with all music notation, and with the 
process of sight reading in music. 

After the capacity has been gained to read in all major keys, 
and the three forms of the minor scale in all keys, and after the 
student has gained some familiarity with the elements of music 
notation, he should begin the structure of original four measure 
phrases, in the following order: 



MUSIC 447 

Melodies embodying the scale line, without skips, using all 

1 1 .1 -1 . / ^ ^ 3 3 3 4 4 6 I 

keys and the simpler meters < , . „ , o q o } -l-his 

1242404^0] 

will afiford the student practice in the proper formation of the 
cadence, the use of sequential figures, and the distribution of 
accents. 

These scale melodies should be followed by similar four measure 
phrase melodies which embody the use of all the commonly used 
r-.elodic intervals : the major and minor third ; the perfect and 
diminished fourth ; the perfect and diminished fifth ; the major 
r.nd minor sixth; the minor seventh (on the dominant) and the 
supertonic ; and the perfect octave. 

Extensive practice is necessary to make these simple elements 
entirely familiar to the student. This practice may be amplified 
by requiring the pupil to write not only in the phrase form but 
in the eight measure period form. 

When the intervals have become melodically familiar through 
constructive work, four and eight measure melodies embracing 
definite chord successions should follow, in order that the pupil 
may realize the fundamental principle that all melody is a hori- 
zontal presentation of harmonic succession. With all melodic 
constructive work, it is recommended that melodies similar to 
those embodied in the students' lessons should be used for 
analysis. 

After some time spent in developing these forms and idioms in 
the major mode, the same steps should be repeated in each of the 
three forms of the minor scale, and particular stress should be 
laid upon the construction of melodies which are based upon 
chord succession of the minor mode. 

After the student has become familiar with the melodic presenta- 
tion of simple triad connections, the use of the dominant seventh 
chord in the third measure of the phrase, should be required. 
As soon as the student gains some familiarity with the art of 
tone construction, he should be required to give interest to his 
original work through the use of sec[uences. 

The steps here enumerated for melodic construction can be 
infinitely varied through the changing of the metric signature, 
and through the constantly freer use of rhythm. On this sub- 
ject, it is only necessary to say that the first writing is best 
limited to such a rhythm as presents a single note to a beat, 
save in the final measure, in which a longer note is permitted. 
This should be followetl by the use of two sounds to the beat. 



448 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

the use of the dotted quarter and eighth note, in meters of 2/4, 
3/4, 4/4, and its equivalent in other meters; the triplet, four 
notes to the beat, and the subdivision of the last. Through these 
simple models of the phrase and period, the student should 
learn the introdoiction of the sharp approached from above, in all 
possible scale positions, likewise the approach of flat 7, through 
8, 6 and 5. Practice in the various meters and rhythms, and 
practice with the sharp and flat inflex now prepare the student 
to do constructive work in melody which embodies simple modula- 
tions. At first these modulations should occur at the end of the 
first phrase of the period. The passing from the given major 
key to its dominant, to its subdominant and to its relative minor, 
and the passing from the given minor key to the minor key of 
the dominant and to the relative major key, should be taken up 
first. 

However little originality the student may show in melody 
writing, it must be borne in mind that, like the early efforts in 
English composition, these first music sentences may appear as 
the result of conscious efifort rather than as the result of inspira- 
tion; but it must further be borne in mind that the principal 
purpose of melody writing is to bring before the student the 
problems of structure in simple forms, and the mechanism of 
rhythm, as well as the mechanism of the most natural mod- 
ulations. 

In brief, melody writing applies at once to music writing, 
music listening, dictation, and sight reading; and, consequently, 
becomes one of the most potent influences for increased famil- 
iarity with music and its structure that can be demanded of the 
student. 

HARMONY AND COUNTERPOINT 

Any standard textbook may be used. The student should be- 
come acquainted in harmony, both with the thorough bass system 
and with the presentation of the subject as it is taught by means 
of harmonizing a given soprano. 

First year 

Intervals 

Triads in major and minor 
Triad inversions 

The dominant seventh and its inversions 

The secondary seventh in regular cadencing resolution (with 
inversions) 



MUSIC 449 

These topics should be practised by writing over a given bass, 
and the following should be taken up with a given soprano. 

Triads and their inversions, the dominant seventh and its 
inversions 

Suggested texts 
T. Tapper. First Year Harmony 
S. Jadassohn. Elementary Principles of Harmony 
Ludwig Bussler. Manual of Harmony 

Second year 

A rapid review of the first year's work is recommended and 
its continuance to the equivalent of completing the Jadassohn 
and Bussler texts. Considerable practice should be given this 
year in chord analysis, and in the writing of original modulatory 
passages. 

Comparatively simple work should be used for harmonic analysis, 
of which the following are types: 

August Haupt. Choral Book 

Mozart. The simpler sonatas 

Beethoven. Op. 2, no. i 
Op. 10, no. I 
Op. 49, nos. I, 2 

Third year 

A review of the second year's work and its modification should 
give the student facility in the subjects of suspension, pedal point, 
embellished melody through passing and changing tones, and melodic 
figuration in general. Considerable analysis of simple classics 
should accompany the work, and in the second half year, two- 
part, strict counterpoint in the " five orders," as well as two-part 
writing in free style, should be taken up. 

Suggested texts 
G. Chadwick. Harmony 
Dr F. Bridge. Simple Counterpoint 
Dr Percy Goetschius. Counterpoint 

Fourth year 

Strict and free counterpoint in three and four parts, with 
constant analysis of contrapuntal types, such as the simple pre- 
ludes and fugues of Bach, the six easy fugues of Handel, and 



450 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

the simpler movements of the French and English suites of 
Bach. 

Suggested texts 
Dr Percy Goetschius. Counterpoint 

Fifth year 

Free counterpoint in three and four parts, with analysis of 
fugues from the Well-tempered Clavichord, and at least a theoretic 
knowledge of fugue structure. 

Suggested texts 
Cherubini. Counterpoint 
Dr Percy Goetschius. Counterpoint 
Dr Higgs. On Fugue 

MUSIC FORM AND ANALYSIS 
First year 
The student will gain through the course in melody writing, a 
knowledge of the phrase and period structure, and through his 
study of harmony, a knowledge of cadences. 

During the first year's study in music form, the equivalent of 
the simple and compound song forms, as given by Dr Ludwig 
Bussler, should be accomplished, and analysis of such types as the 
following should be made a part of each lesson: 
Mozart. Theme in A 

Theme in D, with Variations (from the pianoforte 

Sonatas) 
Minuet and Trio in B flat (from the pianoforte Sonata 
in Bb) 
Schumann. Op. 68, the analysis of the first 20 numbers 
Beethoven. The Minuet and Trio movements, or their equiv- 
alents from the Sonatas 
Mendelssohn. Songs without Words, nos. i, 2, 4, 9, 16 

Second year 

In the second year the equivalent of the Sonatine and Sonata 
analysis as presented in Dr Bussler's book, forms the extent of 
the work. 

For analysis, it is recommended that the student become 
acquainted with the first movement form of the Clementi and 
the Kuhlau Sonatines ; with the first movement form of the first 
five Clementi Sonatas, with any five Mozart Sonatas, and with 



MUSIC 451 

the Beethoven Sonatas, op. 2, no. i ; op. 2, no. 2 ; op. 49, nos. i 
and 2. 

During the second year, a considerable amount of analysis of 
the song forms should be continued, in order that the student 
may become intimately acquainted with a large amount of music 
literature. 

Third year 

The simple and higher rondo forms, as presented in Bussler's 
text, or its equivalent, constitutes the basis of music form for 
the third year. 

All rondo movements of the Mozart Sonatas, of the Sonatas 
by Clementi, and at least the following, by Beethoven, should be 
taken up this year : 

Op. 2, no. 2, Largo 

Op. 2, no. 3, Largo 

Op. 47, nos. I, 2, Finale 

MUSIC HISTORY 

The course in music history should cover two years, and be 
based upon any text that is complete enough to amplify the 
following general subjects : 

Music of oriental nations 

Music of the Greeks 

The Greek theory of the scale 

Music as practised by the Romans 

Early Christian music 

The beginnings of modern notation 

The beginnings of counterpoint 

The simultaneous growth of sacred and secular music, with 
a contrast between the homophonic and the polyphonic schools 

The Netherlandic school 

Early music in Italy, France, England and Germany 

The work and times of Palestrina 

The rise of opera and oratorio 

The general development of dramatic music 

Bach, and his influence 

Handel, and the development of the oratorio 

The development of instruments of the piano class 

Haydn : the rise of the symphony, string quartet, and piano 
sonata 

The ekboration and development of instrumental forms by 
Haydn and Mozart 
29 



452 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

The classical school, and what it accomplished 

The rise of Romanticism : 

Schubert, Mendelssohn, Chopin and Schumann 

Weber, and the opera 

Richard Wagner, and the opera 

Brahms, and the symphony 

The romantic school and what it accomplished 

The development of the song from the time of Schubert 

The modern school 

To the fullest extent possible, the work in music history 
should be correlated with general history and with music apprecia- 
tion. 

Historical programs which permit the performance of music, 
requiring papers based upon research work, are highly recom- 
mended. 

While any textbook that treats the subject as completely as 
indicated above is valuable, it will be found useful to have at 
hand for reference, Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians ■ — 
mentioned under the high school library list. 

ACOUSTICS 
The subject of acoustics may readily be completed in a half 
year. 

While it is not essential that experiments in physics as re- 
lated to tone be conducted, it is recommended that the study be 
so carried forward, if possible, both for the sake of the direct 
observation that can be made, and for the correlation with the 
subject of physics. 

Especial attention should be paid to the subjects of: 
The sensation of sound and its external cause 
The nature of sound transmission 
Resonance 
Compound sounds 

The motion of sounding strings and air columns 
The nature of consonance and dissonance 
Scales and temperament 
Intervals and their ratios 
Tone quality (timbre) 
In all subjects under acoustics, observation of tone phenomena 
through the practical study of tone-producing instruments is abso- 
lutely essential. 



GROUP VIII 
^HOME ECONOMICS 

FOODS AND HOUSEKEEPING 

Time: five periods a week. One year 
Suggestions to the teacher in the use of the syllabus 

Schools with fair equipment will be able to carry on the entire 
course on foods and housekeeping as here outlined. Schools not 
equipped to undertake the complete course may select from the 
topics offered such as they are able to give, remembering always 
that the most important topics are those that relate to the common 
staple articles of food. 

This topic of foods and cookery should be looked upon by the 
teacher as a study of food economics, in the management of the 
home ; and, again, as an important element in the economy of the 
nation. Skill in the practical use of materials, and knowledge of 
economical purchase and wise selection for nutrition are of equal 
importance. To give a specific example: there is very definite sci- 
entific knowledge in regard to the effect of heat upon the protein 
and the connective tissues of meat. If we would apply this to the 
cookery of cheap meats, we should be utilizing a valuable form of 
food which is frequently discarded. If in addition to the scientific 
application of heat, we add the artistic touch in the way of savory 
flavors we should accomplish the double purpose of making a nutri- 
tive food agreeable and of saving money. We need this kind of 
cookery much more than the making of rich croquettes and similar 
dishes. To take from the scientific expert the sound foundation for 
practical work and to give it to her pupils in workable and at- 
tractive form should be the study of the household arts teacher. 
This is truly applied science and, more than that, it is a form of 
economic and ethical teaching. 

In the average high school it is not possible to give highly spe- 
cialized work in nutrition, but much can be done in the discussion 
of what constitutes a well balanced meal, both in amount and in 
variety, and, in addition to this, the cost of meals. This is one of 
the greatest needs at present. 

In those high schools where the pupils have work in the natural 
sciences that parallels or precedes the course in foods, the teacher 

1 In the preparation of the syllabus in home economics valuable assistance has been rendered 
by professors in Teachers College, Columbia University. 

453 



454 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

may easily add more scientific experiments than are indicated in 
this syllabus and may develop more fully the scientific side of the 
work. 

This syllabus is arranged by topics, but only approximately in 
the order in which the topics can be given. The number of lessons 
under each topic is left to the discretion of the teacher. Some of 
the topics would form part of a lesson only in connection with cer- 
tain other topics. The sequence must be modified to suit 
circumstances. 

In the first few topics the pupil is introduced to the most im- 
portant food principles, with the exception of sugar. The sugar 
topic is not usually looked upon as important, but is more valuable 
than at first sight appears. It naturally is put into a course at some 
festival time. A candy lesson may be made valuable if the cost 
of the candy is discussed, as well as the adulterations in low-priced 
candy found in the stores. 

After the topics, fruit, milk, eggs, cereals, fats and oils, the other 
topics must be arranged as seems wise to the teacher. The 
cost of food materials at different seasons must be taken into ac- 
count, and this sometimes alters the sequence materially. The 
vegetable is a good topic to follow fats and oils. Great stress 
should be laid upon the cookery of vegetables, since ordinary 
processes waste much nutritive material in the shape of mineral 
salts. The standard of vegetable cookery in this country is not a 
high one. 

Under the topic meat it is urged that the cookery of inexpensive 
cuts be made especially prominent. Here slow cooking of course 
must be emphasized and the teacher must make clear that long cook- 
ing does not of necessity waste fuel. There is doubtless a preju- 
dice against tough meat dishes that can only be overcome by 
proving that they are not only palatable in an ordinary degree, but 
may be made truly delicious. A practical difficulty exists for the 
teacher in the fact that the processes are slow and the cooking 
lessons short. Ingenuity is necessary here in planning ways arid 
means, as for instance, having pupils come early to start the process, 
or having one class finish the lessons another has begun, having 
all see the product. This question is so important that it is worth 
much time and thought. The question of meat substitutes and 
the excessive use of meat should also be discussed. 

The topic of meals does not of necessity come late in the course, 
simply because it appears late in the syllabus. Meals may be dis- 



HOME ECONOMICS 455 

cussed at the very beginning of the course ; as for instance, in the 
discussion of milk as a food, it may be treated as the meal for the 
infant and contrasted with the meal for the grown person, the same 
elements being present in both, but in ditit'erent forms. A simple 
meal may be planned early in the course. The idea of the meal 
holds all the other topics together and gives the course unity. This 
thought can be kept before the pupils even when they are not actu- 
ally preparing the meal, by discussing, for a few minutes, the ques- 
tion of the meal for which the dish of the day is appropriate. The 
social element entering into the serving of the meal is of incalculable 
value in holding the interest of the pupils. 

Another topic that need not be treated entirely by itself is that 
of beverages. A given beverage can be discussed and made while 
baking is going on for instance, or in connection with some house- 
keeping lesson. 

Sanitation of the kitchen and house, and the idea of cleanliness 
is present in all lessons, but also needs certain definite periods for 
discussion. This is also true of the topic fuels, etc. While the 
use of the stove and the care of utensils is emphasized at the begin- 
ning of the course, it must constantly be kept in the mind of the 
pupils. This is also true of cooking processes. 

The question of the method of the recitation in household arts is 
of supreme importance. It is easy for the lesson to degenerate into 
the mere routine following of a printed recipe; yet there is no 
subject richer in opportunity for observation, induction, reasoning, 
deduction and experiment. In the high school a certain amount 
of time should be definitely set aside for discussion. If five peri- 
ods a week are allowed, one should be given to discussion and four 
to laboratory work ; if only four are allowed by the schedule, one 
period still should be assigned to recitation work. This recitation 
time should be given to the preparation for laboratory work, discus- 
sion of the results of previous experiments, and the discussion of 
any ideas that are to be developed. The dearth of textbooks and the 
fact that no time is allowed for outside preparation make it diffi- 
cult for the teacher ; yet there is some printed material available, 
and by lecture and by notes, the instructor can give her pupils 
subject-matter for which she should hold them responsible. In 
laboratory work there is rich opportunity for training the pupils 
in responsibility of thought and action. The constant aim should 
be to develop initiative and independence, and never to permit the 
following of directions by rote. The fear that first results may not 



456 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

be perfect is a source of hindrance to the teacher. Where the 
pupil is led to experiment, results may not at first be good; but if 
these experiments are followed up and repeated, and independent 
work continued, better results will be assured in the end. 

Reading references. The high school teacher is much hampered 
by the lack of good textbooks for her pupils. There is no one vol- 
ume to be recommended. The school library should contain The 
Library of Home Economics, published by the American School of 
Home Economics, Chicago. The pamphlets in the reading course 
for farmers' wives, published by the School of Agriculture at Cor- 
nell University contain a great deal of useful material, much of 
which is in a form adapted to high school pupils. Two of these 
on nutrition are very suggestive in the planning of balanced menus. 
These may be put into the hands of the pupils, for constant refer- 
ence. For the teacher the Farmers' Bulletins and the pamphlets on 
nutrition issued by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, are 
readily available and always helpful. An excellent book for the 
teacher is Dr Harrington's Practical Hygiene. This book is accu- 
rate and up-to-date and covers many topics. A good, standard 
cookbook is useful for reference. 

A weekly journal that deals in a rational way with current events 
is indispensable to the household arts teacher. In such a journal 
discussions of the standard and cost of living are frequently found, 
as well as other aspects of conditions that afifect the home. 

I Classification of food principles ^ 

TABULATION FOR TEACHERS' REFERENCE 

1 Elements required by the body 
Carbon Calcium 
Hydrogen Magnesium 
Oxygen Sodium 
Nitrogen Potassium 
Sulphur Iodine (traces) 
Phosphorus Fluorine (traces) 
Iron 

2 Food principles furnishing these elements 

Proteins — furnish carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul- 
phur and sometimes phosphorus 
Fats — - furnish carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 
Carbohydrates — furnish carbon, hydrogen and oxygen 

1 See also Farmers' Wives' B\illetins, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y. 

No. 6, Human Nutrition, Part I; No. 1, Human Nutrition, Part XL 



HOME ECONOMICS 457 

Mineral matter — furnishes phosphorus, iron, calcium, mag- 
nesium, sodium, potassium, iodine, fluorine 
Water — furnishes hydrogen and oxygen 

3 General functions of these food principles 
a To supply energy 

b To supply building material 
c To regulate body processes 

4 Special functions of each food principle 

Proteins — supply energy; nitrogen, sulphur, and sometimes 

phosphorus 
Fats — supply energy in the most concentrated form 
Carbohydrates — supply energy in the most economical form 
Mineral matter — supplies building material, except nitrogen 

and sulphur, and helps to regulate body functions 
Water — supplies building material (about 6o% of body being 

water) and helps to regulate body processes 

5 Examples of foodstuffs rich in each food principle 
Proteins Chestnuts 

Eggs Sweet fruits 

Milk Sugar 

(3heese Mineral matter 

Lean meats Milk 

Pish Green vegetables 

Fats Fruits 

(;;;j.eam Whole wheat and other whole 

B^^tei- cereal products 

Meat fats Egg yolk 

Vegetable oils Water 

]v;[ul-s Fresh fruits 

Yolk of egg Fresh vegetables 

Carbohydrates Milk 

Cereals and cereal products Beverages, including water as 

Potatoes and other starchy such 
vegetables 

II Principles of cookery 

See each food material 

III Fuels, cooking apparatus and cooking processes 

I Compare coal, wood, kerosene and gas; circumstances under 
which these fuels are practicable to use ; comparative cost and 
convenience; structure of a good stove for a given kind of 
fuel ; economy in management 



458 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

2 Necessary cooking utensils ; materials best for different uses ; 
cost of equipping a kitchen 

3 Temperature of the different cooking processes ; housekeeper's 
tests for deciding temperatures 

a Heat from coal, charcoal, wood or gas 

(i) Toasting — surfaces of food exposed and turned for 
browning 

(2) Broiling — thin portion of meat or fish exposed and 
turned for searing, browning, and rapid cooking of the 
interior 

(3) Roasting — thicker cuts of meat exposed and turned 
frequently for searing, browning, and cooking of interior. 
The portion of food must be at a greater distance from 
the source of heat than in broiling in order that the outer 
crust may not be burned while the interior remains raw 

b Heat through an intervening medium 
(i) Water as a medium 

(a) Boiling. Cooking in boiling water; temperature 
212° F. 

(b) Simmering or stewing; cooking in water below the 
boiling temperature from 180° F. to about 200° F. 

(c) Steaming; cooking in a receptacle into which steam 
penetrates, 212° F. or in a closed receptacle surrounded 
by steam or boiling water, as in certain steamers, or a 
double boiler ; temperature about 200-8° F. 

(2) Fat, the medium 

Deep fat frying, temperature 350°-400° F. 

(3) Heated surfaces, the medium 

(o) Pan broiling. Cooking of chops or steaks in iron pan 
without additional fat 

(b) Saute; cooking in heated pan with a small amount 
of fat: enough fat merely to prevent the food from 
sticking to the pan and to hasten the process of 
browning 

(c) Baking; cooking in a heated oven; temperature from 
300°-400° F. 

(d) Braizing or pot roasting; cooking in an iron or earth- 
ern vessel with moisture, closely covered, either on stove 
top or in oven. The browning of the meat occurs either 
at the beginning or the end of the process. The moisture 
keeps the temperature down to the boiling point of water. 



HOME ECONOMICS 459 

IV Water 

An important factor in nutrition ; does not supply energy to the 
body ; is a solvent, a carrier and a heat regulator. Water is 
contained in all foods and beverages ; average amount of 
water given ofif by the body daily, about 4}^ pints; water 
taken in with solid food, about 234 pints ; water to be added 
in fluids, about 2 '4 pints; at least a (juart of this fluid should 
be clear water; when water contains in excess a mineral 
like lime, it should be boiled to precipitate the lime before 
drinking; great care must be taken to insure purity of water 
supply, both municipal and local. In case of municipal 
supply the sources must be carefully guarded and inspected ; 
in case of local supplies the source must be guarded from 
contamination by waste products. After heavy rains and 
floods it is well to boil drinking water; in case of a preva- 
lent epidemic, such as typhoid fever, drinking water should 
be boiled for at least half an hour. Where water contains 
sediment, filters may be used, but they should be frequently 
cleansed. 

Uses in cookery : Valuable as a cooking medium ; 'boils at 
212° F. ; the temperature of steam is the same except under 
pressure ; valuable as a cooking medium when below the boil- 
ing point, for such processes as stewing; its freezing point 
is 32° F., which is reduced by mixture with salt, in which 
case it serves as a freezing medium ; it forms the basis of all 
beverages. 

Practical work : Boil water in Florence flask using ther- 
mometer, noting the appearance before and at the boiling 
point; test the temperature of steam just above the surface 
of the boiling water. Test temperature of the inner part of 
double boiler when surrounded by boiling water. 
Make beverages with tea, coffe or cocoa. If the lesson on water 
is given in warm weather make lemonade or some fruit sherbet. 

V Fruit 

An important food to be eaten daily ; a luxury only when out of 
season or imported at high prices ; contains sugar, valuable 
acids and mineral salts ; make list of average prices of most 
common fruits when in season ; preserved by drying, canning 
and similar processes ; comparative economy of canning fruit 
at home and purchasing canned fruit ; comparative cost of 
dried and canned fruits 



460 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Principles of cookery : Cleanliness in serving uncooked fruit ; 
cooking desirable for softening the fibers, thus increasing 
digestibility ; flavor developed by cooking ; sterilization an 
important element in the cookery of fruit 

Principles of preservation 

1 Sterilization of the fruit by cooking at the boiling point to 
destroy molds, yeast and bacteria. Sterilization of cans 
for the same purpose 

2 Sealing of the jar or can that contains the sterilized fruit 
to prevent the entrance of air which may contain molds, 
yeast or bacteria 

3 Drying or evaporating, thus removing the moisture which 
inakes it possible for these organisms to develop 

4 In addition to sterilization, the use of substances that act 

as preservatives ; viz : sugar, vinegar, spices 
a Candying ; that is cooking in a heavy sugar syrup and 

drying off 
h Jelly and jam making, and "preserves" where a large 
amount of sugar is used. 
Note. A small amount of sugar will encourage fermentation, but a 
large amount acts as a preservative. 

c Pickling ; with vinegar alone, or with vinegar, sugar and 
spices 
Practical work : Dainty serving of fresh fruit ; stew, bake and 
steam fresh fruit ; dried fruit cooked, compared with flavor 
of canned; how to use canned fruit (canned fruit exposed 
to air or reheated before serving to improve flavor) ; can 
fruit; make jam and jelly. 
VI Milk 

Natural food of the young; contains all elements for building 
the body — muscle, fat, bone and other tissues, and supplies 
energy ; these elements are protein, found in the curd, sugar, 
mineral salts and fat ; how to secure clean milk at the dairy 
and at home ; dangers from milk if not clean ; average cost to 
consumer; milk a substitute for other foods containing 
protein ; to be taken as a food with the meal and not as a 
drink merely; value of skimmed or sour milk as a food and 
in cookery 
Principles of cookery : Milk is less digestible if heated above 
140° F. Important if milk is to be prepared for children, 
not to heat above this point 
Practical work : Set milk, skim cream ; use rennet to separate 
curd; make dessert of rennetted milk (flavor with choco- 
late) ; or make gelatine blanc mange 



HOME ECONOMICS 461 

VII Eggs 

Eggs also contain all elements of nutrition (for the young chick) ; 
rich in protein and a good meat substitute when not too 
costly ; may be stored when abundant ; abuses of cold stor- 
age ; fair prices to consumer ; not to be used lavishly in 
cookery when prices are high ; test for eggs fresh enough 
for use 
Principles of cookery : Cooking does not materially affect the 
digestibility of eggs ; egg more delicately cooked below the 
boiling point of water; if hard cooked, better to serve 
chopped 
Practical work: Dainty serving of raw egg, beaten, flavored 
with fruit juice or essence; cook egg Ijelow boiling point of 
water ; poach egg ; make dainty dish of hard cooked eggs ; 
make plain or light omelet, etc. 
Test egg for freshness by placing it in a glass containing saturated 
solution of salt. If the egg sinks it is fresh enough for use. If it 
rises to the top it should be discarded. 

VIII Cereals 

Contain all the food elements, stored for the young plant; protein, 
oils, mineral salts, sugar, and starch not found in milk and eggs ; 
most common varieties in use — wheat, corn, oats, rye and 
barley ; less common but valuable breakfast foods from the 
last two ; forms of breakfast food are granulated, flaked, par- 
tially cooked, " ready to eat '' ; the latter often made from in- 
ferior grain. 
In buying select staple kinds, avoiding inferior novelties ; an 
important, economical breakfast dish, if well cooked ; serve with 
toast to insure mastication (often made more attractive if served 
with fruit) ; compare cost of several varieties; amount and cost for 
a family breakfast 

Principles of cookery : Cereals dropped into rapidly boiling 
water, to be followed by long cooking below the boiling point ; 
fiber not a food, but must be softened to free the food ele- 
ments ; starch, thus treated to secure hydration and some of 
the chemical changes otherwise produced by digestion ; im- 
portant to use practical methods for the long process without 
using extra fuel 
Practical work : Cooking of a few typical cereals, noting pro- 
portions of water with granular or flaked ; use a fireless 
cooker if possible; use left-over cereal by molding with fruit 



462 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

for a dessert and by browning in a fat, such as suet; (men- 
tion use of left-over cereal for muffins and bread) ; make 
cornstarch dessert ; tapioca dessert. 
Extra experiments; use iodine test for starch before cooking; 
Fehling's solution for sugar after long cooking. 

IX Vegetables 

Old beans and peas rich in protein; young peas, young beans, 
sweet corn, rich in sugar; roots and tubers rich in starch; 
stems, leaves, flowers, contain vegetable acids and mineral 
salts — the last their chief value ; vegetables inexpensive 
in season ; made seasonable by storage and by canning ; laws 
that should insure wholesomeness of all preserved vegetables ; 
careful cleansing of all green vegetables in the kitchen. 
Principles of cookery: Fiber rendered soft in tough vege- 
tables ; starch to be cooked when present ; principal point is 
the retention of the mineral salts, absolutely necessary to 
health ; avoid boiling and throwing away the water ; use little 
water and utilize the liquid product ; better to steam or bake, 
thus avoiding all waste. 
Practical work : Cook two or three seasonable vegetables ; 
bake and steam ; serve daintily ; make vegetable soups. 
Note. Serving a vegetable in " virhite sauce " does not compensate 
for faulty cooking; better to develop flavor by proper cooking and 
omit the sauce. 

X Fats and oils 

Foods high in energy value ; both animal and vegetable valuable ; 
scale of cost from beef fat to olive oil ; problem of utilizing the 
cheaper fats in cookery and in the dietary. 
Fat retards digestion in the stomach, therefore large amount at 
end of heavy meal to be avoided ; suitable with a meal light in meat 
food ; constant use as a cooking medium to be avoided. An emul- 
sion makes the fat more readily available (olive oil with egg and 
lemon juice, for instance). 

Principles of cookery : To make emulsion with egg, or egg 
and some liquid ; to prevent decomposition by too high tem- 
perature ; to prevent coating of other food stuff with fat ; 
in browning of food to use as little fat as possible; if deep 
fat is used, temperature not below 350° F. ; careful draining 
when food is hot. 
Practical work : Cook bacon ; try out beef fat ; clarify fat used 
for cooking ; whip cream for a dessert ; make salad dressing 
with butter — with cream — with olive oil 



HOME ECONOMICS 463 

XI Meats and poultry 

Furnish protein and fat ; in present conditions expensive source 
of protein ; conditions that influence cost of meat ; conditions 
in transportation, storage and local markets that affect 
the wholesomeness of meats ; government inspection of 
slaughter houses, cold storage plants, markets; preserved 
by salting, smoking, canning; pure food laws in regard to 
canned meats ; how to buy meat and care for it in the home ; 
cuts that furnish nutriment at least cost ; amount for a given 
family for a day; utilization of all left-overs; study of 
seasoning — herbs, spices, vegetables — that give delicious 
flavors 

Principles of cookery : Moisture and long cooking at tempera- 
ture below the boiling point of water soften the connective 
tissues that make "tough" meat; juices extracted at low 
temperature, or in cold water ; more use should be made of 
low temperature process, such as stewing, and braizing for 
tough meat and fowl ; in this connection the fireless cooker 
is valuable ; high temperature necessary only for searing or 
coating surfaces that the juices may be retained, and for 
developing flavor on the surface — as in broiHng. A point 
to notice in meat cookery is the destruction of objectionable 
organisms in case they are present. Where ptomaines have 
been formed by the development of bacteria, cooking does 
not, however, destroy the ptomaines. Where meat or broth 
is to be cooled, for reheating later, or for serving cold, the 
cooling process should be made as rapid as possible. An 
excellent method is to place the vessel containing the meat 
or broth where it may be surrounded by running water. 

Practical work: Broil and roast; pan-broil with no additional 
fat; make palatable stew and dishes from tough cuts, and 
fowl ; made-over meat dishes. 

XII Gelatine 

Gelatine is a nitrogenous substance obtained from bones, liga- 
ments and other connective tissues ; used alone it has little 
nutritive value but in combination with other foods it is 
useful ; to some extent it saves waste of albuminous tissues. 
Gelatinous substance may be obtained from boiling for sev- 
eral hours such material as calves' feet, ox tails, etc. ; after 
clarifying, straining and boiling down this may be used for 
jelly. The ordinary commercial forms are either granulated 
or shredded, and are convenient for common use. 



464 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Principles of cookery: The prepared gelatine is softened by 
soaking in cold water; when thus softened it is readily dis- 
solved by boiling water or other liquid. When cool, it again 
stiffens ; if boiled for any length of time it loses its stiffening 
property. After gelatine is dissolved and when the liquid 
is partially cooled the gelatine may be whipped like white 
of egg. 

Practical work : Experiment with the softening and dissolving 
of the gelatine. Note the proportion of a given kind neces- 
sary for a quart of liquid. Make fruit jelly; make fruit 
" sponge," whipping the gelatine. 

XIII Fish 

A protein food, and valuable as a meat substitute; best when 
freshly caught ; can be kept on ice for a short time ; pre- 
served by salting, smoking, canning, and in oil ; tests for 
proper freshness ; best and cheapest when in season ; proper 
care at home after purchase ; season and cost of most com- 
mon kinds ; cooperation with work of Fisheries Commission 
by avoiding use of those varieties which are protected by 
law (as trout in country districts, " short " lobsters at the 
shore) 

Principles of cookery: To render more palatable; to avoid 
breaking by the softening of the connective tissue by rapid 
boiling; to avoid toughening of the fiber; cooking in the oven 
one excellent method 

Practical work : Bake a slice of fish ; stuff and bake whole 

fish; use left-over fish in scalloped dish with crumbs, potato 

or tomato ; in fish balls ; prepare salted — smoked fish ; use 

canned salmon. 

Note. A point should be made of the use of salted, dried and 

canned fish, with dainty serving and eatable garnishes or savory sauce 

to make the fish tempting. 

Shellfish : Desirable for variety, not highly nutritive ; must 
be perfectly fresh ; under existing conditions to be avoided 
raw ; use of canned shellfish not to be encouraged. 

XIV Milk products 

Cheese : Contains the most nutritive part of the milk ; rich in 
protein ; cream cheese contains both protein and fat ; a cheap 
meat substitute ; a concentrated form of food, to be eaten in 
small quantities or in combination with other food materials. 



HOME ECONOMICS 465 

Principles of cookery: A low temperature necessary; tough- 
ened by high temperatures 

Practical work : Make cottage cheese from sour milk ; make 
cheese toast ; use cheese with macaroni, etc. 

XV Batters: plain and sweet 

A valuable group, since they contain flour, milk, eggs, butter 
and sometimes sugar, thus supplying much nutritive material ; 
if thoroughly baked are not unwholesome food, when not 
taken in excess and altogether in place of yeast breads ; can 
be made without any other leavening agent than air ; discuss 
the use of commercial baking powder versus cream of tartar 
and soda ; common adulterations in poor grade baking 
powders ; use of soda with sour milk ; note the substance 
remaining in the batter as the result of the action of the acid 
and alkaline substances ; use of left-over cereals in muffins. 
Cake really a nutritive food if not taken in excess and if 
considered as part of a meal. Cake only a luxury when 
excessive amount of butter and eggs are used; an injury 
only when made a staple article of diet ; much time and 
energy often wasted in cake making; compare bakery prod- 
ucts with homemade cake for cost and quality. 

Principles of cookery : Careful and thorough mixing. Baking 
at temperatures that have relation to the size of the cake or 
loaf ; in all cases thorough baking 

Practical work: Make variety of batters — plain and sweet; 
emphasize the mixing and baking and economy of material. 
Note. Teach the use of reheated muffins and other quick breads. 

XVI Bread 

Made from wheat flour, rye, graham and other materials, in addi- 
tion to the wheat, as corn and rye meal, cooked cereals ; 
new process white flour contains more available nutriment 
than whole wheat flour; a blend of flour combining that made 
from winter wheat with spring wheat is considered the best 
for bread ; bread raised with yeast has better flavor and 
texture and is more wholesome than quick bread made with 
baking powder; bread made at home versus bread made in 
public bakeries ; compare quality and cost of homemade and 
baker's products ; use of bread machines when bread is made 
at home, saving labor -^ use of patent yeast made under cleanly 
conditions ; great care in making yeast if done at home ; care 
of bread after baking 



466 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

Principles 01 cookery: Thorough mixing of materials to give 
proper texture ; care in regard to temperature in which yeast 
works best, about 70 degrees to 80 degrees F. ; time element 
important that acid fermentation may not develop; thorough 
baking to destroy yeast and give good crust 

Practical work : Experiment with yeast in a sweetened liquid 
at temperatures from the freezing to the boiling point of 
water ; use microscope, and reference books. Make yeast 
(in those sections where homemade yeast is necessary). 
Make white bread ; bread with other materials ; make rolls ; 
make sweet bread ; make toast ; prepare crumbs from left- 
over bread, etc. 

XVII Combinations of food materials in desserts and salads 

These dishes not necessarily luxuries ; they contain nutritive 

material in palatable form ; when considered as an essential 

part of a meal and not an addition after sufficient food has 

already been eaten, not unwholesome ; they become luxuries 

only when high-priced materials are used to excess. 

Note the relation of particular salads and desserts to given 

meals — for instance, a heavy salad, containing meat main dish at 

luncheon ; light salads, part of a heavy meal ; desserts with eggs and 

milk, or rich in fat, belong at the end of a meal light in meat food 

and other fats ; fruit dessert after a meal that supplies meat in 

abundance. Study particularly, simple desserts and salads that 

utilize left-over material and that cost little. 

XVIII Sugar 

A substance found, for commercial purposes, in sugar cane and 
the sugar beet, and present in vegetables and fruits ; a valu- 
able food material if not used in excess ; amount to be 
eaten daily, varies from two ounces for young children to 
four ounces for adults; economic use of sugar in cakes and 
desserts ; easy to oversweeten such articles ; comparative 
wholesomeness and economy of homemade candy and candy 
from the shop ; candy habit to be controlled ; when it is best 
to eat candy and how much ; estimate of personal expendi- 
ture for candy. 
Principles of cookery : Sugar made into syrup by cooking 
with water ; becomes thicker if process is prolonged and water 
evaporated ; is changed by cooking with an acid ; heated with- 
out water forms caramel, to be used for coloring and 
flavoring. 



HOME ECONOMICS 467 

Practical work: The making of syrup in preserving lessons; 
making of one or two candies ; use caramel flavoring in 
some dessert. 

XIX Beverages 

Tea, coffee, cocoa contain extractives, giving agreeable flavors ; 
also nervous stimulants — theine — caffeine, theo-bromine. 
Cocoa is chocolate deprived of fat; chocolate used as a bev- 
erage should be looked upon as a food on account of its fat 
content. Tea and coffee should not be taken regularly by 
young people, nor in excess at any time ; tea and coffee never 
given to little children. Compare Chinese and Ceylon teas ; 
note difference in cost of different grades of coffee and tea; 
some common forms of adulteration in cheap grades. 

Principles of cookery. In tea avoid boiling; in coffee better 
not to boil and never more than 5 minutes ; in cocoa and 
chocolate avoid long cooking with the milk. 

Practical work : Make tea, coffee, cocoa and chocolate. 

XX Meals 

All food principles must be represented in the meal ; amount of 
food in weight of materials necessary for a grown person 
or family, for a day, or for a week ; balanced variety in 
meals ; the type of meals that can be furnished at given 
amounts of money per capita, per day ; proportion of food 
expenditure to the family income ; pleasing table service ; 
study of table furnishings. 

Dietary for infants: discussion of food for invalids. 

Practical work : Serving of as many meals as possible ; co- 
operation in preparing the school luncheon ; make list of 
foods and dishes under the head of protein, fat, carbohydrate, 
mineral salts ; find cost of these ; use this table as a basis 
for the making of menus ; prepare infants' food ; prepare 
tray for invalid. 

XXI Sanitation of the kitchen and house ^ 

This may, or may not be treated as a separate topic. It is neces- 
sary at the beginning of the course to give a lesson on the care 
of the kitchen, and this has to be followed up in each lesson. 
It is well, if time permits, to give the whole of a lesson occa- 
sionally to the question of cleanliness and good methods in 
housework, taking up the care of the refrigerator, cleanliness 
in the handling of food, and the care of sink and drains. A 

' See also Fanners' Wives' Bulletins; No. 3, The Laundry; No. 4, Bacteriology of the household. 
30 



468 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

lesson may be developed on the discussion of the disposal of 
waste in general and the question of water supply, the topics 
treated depending upon the locality where the lesson is given. 
Where a complete course of laundering is not possible the 
proper care of dish towels must be taught, and two or three 
lessons at least on laundering may be given. The same holds 
good in regard to home care of the sick where time does not 
permit any number of lessons on home nursing. Under some 
one of the given topics a few dishes can be prepared for an 
invalid. This may lead the way, if the teacher chooses, to a 
discussion of the general care of an invalid, with perhaps two 
or three lessons devoted to this specific subject. 
In using these topics the needs of the particular neighborhood 

must always be borne in mind and practical work selected that will 

be especially useful in a given neighborhood. 

DOMESTIC ART 

Introduction 

General suggestions to teachers 

The use of drafting and pattern making 

Helps of various kinds 

Courses 

I General 

II Dressmaking and millinery 

This syllabus is planned for the general high schools in vil- 
lages and small cities rather than for manual training, technical, 
or vocational high schools in the large industrial centers of the 
State. It consists of (i) a general course of garment making, 
complete in itself and (2) a more advanced course in dressmaking 
and millinery for those schools which desire to give two years to 
domestic art. Each course is supposed to cover five periods 
throughout the year, four laboratory work and one quiz. The gen- 
eral course can be placed in either the first or second year. In 
schools where cooking has been taught in the grade immediately 
before the high school the sewing and dressmaking are often placed 
in the second and third high school years that cooking may be in 
the first, thus giving the students two consecutive years of each 
subject. The syllabus shov/s the instruction to be given by the 
teacher and the work which the students are to do. 

General suggestions for teachers. Lessons in art should be 
given in connection with both the general and advanced course. 
An art teacher who knows the technic of dressmaking or the 



HOME ECONOMICS 469 

domestic art teacher should teach the students to design their own 
decoration for their garments. Some simple costume design will 
help to obtain better results in both dressmaking and millinery. 

Discussions of the work and related subjects should occur regu- 
larly. The hour for the c^uiz is set apart for this purpose. In 
addition from five to ten minutes may well be taken at almost every 
laboratory lesson to discuss phases and difficulties of the work in 
hand and to save time by giving clear ideas to the students. Illustra- 
tions should accompany these discussions. The students should bring 
samples of material for consideration that they may learn how to 
buy more intelligently. They can test these materials in various 
"ways, such as washing, shrinking, burning, putting in the sun, tear- 
ing, rubbing and finding thin places. If stores, mills or museums are 
near, the class should be taken to them after due preparation that 
each student may observe materials and processes. Every teacher 
must adapt her teaching to the community about her and to the 
needs of the students. A prosperous and cultivated agricultural 
neighborhood needs very different suggestions and plans from a 
manufacturing community of uneducated, yet well to do workers. 
The teacher must make a point of knowing local conditions and 
needs, fit her work to them, and watch if improvement follows. She 
must influence the students in localities where money is scarce to 
buy good but inexpensive materials and, if necessary, teach them to 
renovate and to make over rather than to make new garments only. 
The instructions should never be by dictation but, after free dis- 
cussion, which she must lead wisely, the teacher may give direct 
help where it is needed. Plans and decisions should be made by the 
students that they may learn to depend upon themselves. The 
teacher must watch the way the class works, and insist on persistent 
industry leading to some speed. She should know how long the 
work should take that she may discourage waste of time. She 
must not allow poor, showy materials and cheap laces and embroid- 
eries to be used. The students can bring materials from home or 
purchase from samples discussed in class. The teacher must know 
what the family is willing to spend on any garment and keep the 
girl to that price helping her to make an attractive result. Even 
poor families will buy materials if they know they will be wisely 
used on garments which would otherwise have to be bought. 

Notebooks should be kept by the students. The contents must 
not be dictated but must be the free expression of the students on 
the points gained. They should contain facts of construction, pat- 



470 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

tern making, draft and alteration; samples of materials with width 
and price ; and designs for garments and computations of cost. The 
teacher should revise the notebooks from time to time. Should it 
be necessary to furnish the class with exact knowledge of a draft, 
the material can be mimeographed and given to each student to 
insert in her notebook and thus save time. 

Examinations which occur from time to time in the schools should 
cover the making of patterns and the construction of garments, 
practical ideas in connection therewith, some demand for personal 
plans, and economic, textile, and other data. 

Knowing the content of other school subjects will be an aim of 
the good teacher that she may use the information the students are 
gaining in practical ways and make them feel that labor, to be 
rightly done, requires the utilization of academic knowledge. 

Pattern making and drafting. Drafting of patterns is fre- 
quently used to accompany garment making in the high school. 
It is of doubtful benefit when it is given with set dictated rules, 
for it develops independence neither of thought nor of action. To 
be sure each girl may make a pattern for herself or for another, 
but she has usually gained Httle in understanding how to adapt the 
draft to changing fashions or how to cut and fit easily in her own 
home. The real service which drafting may render has been lost 
in such cut and dried lessons. The good dressmaker or the able 
woman in her home, does not rely on drafting to make every new 
pattern ; she is superior to it. She can take any pattern she has 
and adapt it to her purpose. She completely cuts it over or in- 
creases it here or decreases it there until a good result is obtained. 
The aim of a course of lessons in drafting should be to give each 
pupil ability of a similar character. Freedom from set rules and 
the knowledge of how to go to work is much more necessary than 
merely having a good pattern. Drafting therefore, should be a 
means to an end, and not an end in itself. Through it students 
should learn the form of the body, the way patterns are made and 
the points of construction. They should be able to appreciate good 
line, to utilize and alter patterns which can be purchased and should 
know how to adapt any given one to different figures or to changing 
styles. The school can not go far in this work, but it is important 
that the right start should be made. The aim should be to have 
each girl comprehend the use of the different parts of paper pat- 
terns. A free-hand drafting system may aid in this knowledge if 
taught intelligently. No matter how clever a demonstrator a 



HOME ECONOMICS 471 

teacher is, she will fail to give as much help in explaining a draft, 
as will he ohtained by a girl in her own crude efforts toward using 
some pattern or making one for herself, as a step toward regular 
drafting. The regular patented systems of drafting on the market 
are of less value in the schools than the simple free-hand ones, for 
their methods are less evident, and the manufactured curves take 
the place of the free-hand line which constantly improves as the 
student gains experience. It can easily be seen that lessons in art 
should be closely connected with the pattern making and drafting. 
In the homes bought patterns are very generally used. Students 
should be able to comprehend and use them. If free-hand drafting 
can be made a factor in this it should be given, its place being to 
follow some general idea of pattern making rather than to precede 
or take the place of it. Each girl through these lessons should 
gain in ability quickly to cut and fit a waist, coat or skirt of any 
kind. She should gradually gain in original ideas and in the ability 
to utilize any picture she sees or pattern she may have. 

Helps. Collect advertisement sheets of clothing, lace and 
embroidery; samples of materials of all kinds with name, cost and 
width. Consult the best of the home magazines to obtain clippings 
or to make notes. Some of these periodicals have excellent sug- 
gestions on simple garment making and on pattern making and 
drafting. Collect pictures from advertisements and magazines ; and 
examine loan collections from various sources illustrating points 
needed. Valuable for reference are yearbooks such as those of the 
Consumer's League, the Municipal League, the Child Labor League, 
the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 
Students should visit shops, libraries, museums and mills, and 
should watch book lists for new and suggestive literature. A sug- 
gestive list of domestic art books can be found in A Sezving Course ^ 
which also gives directions for sewing and instruction in methods 
of teaching it. 

Outline of work 

/ General course. One year 
I Sewing. The stitches required in garment making, if not mast- 
ered in the elementary school, must be learned as needed. 
Girls of the first and second high school year, however, should 
not sit and sew by hand any longer than necessary. Sewing 

1 Woolman, A Sewing Course. Published by F. A. Fernold, 217 Utica St., 
Buffalo, N. Y. $1.50 net. 



472 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

therefore should not be continuous in a course but should be 
alternated with cutting, measuring, machine work and the 
various parts of garment construction. Even if the students 
do not know how to sew they should not be expected to make 
perfect stitches but should be required to practise long enough 
only for the work to be usable. They should then apply the 
acquired knowledge on some article or garment. Pincushions, 
needlebooks or small bags are useful to the students and may 
be utilized for practice in various stitches and seams. Ma- 
chine and hand sewing may be combined in various interesting 
articles if the class needs much practice before beginning on 
the garments. 
Necessary stitches and combinations of stitches should alone be 
given. The following are suggestive as sufficient for most 
garments : running, gathering, and stroking stitching or some 
similar strong stitch, hemming, overhanding, overcasting, slip 
stitching and buttonholes ; seams, such as the French and the 
fell, plackets for drawers, skirt or shirtwaist sleeves, and put- 
ting on a band often need some slight practice before being 
applied to the garment. Decorative stitches may be required 
such as cross-stitch, herringbone, featherstitching, hemstitching 
and satin-stitch. 

II Machine stitching. The use and care of the machine must be 

carefully taught. Much practice is needed for straight and 
curved lines for tucking, and for the use of the attachments. 
There should be the minimum of practice on models, for ex- 
perience can be gained more rapidly on such articles as cooking 
aprons and caps, laundry bags, pillow cases or a short kimono. 
A few articles of this kind may if necessary precede the work 
on garments. 

III Garment making. Using machine work and hand sewing 
I Kinds 

a Underclothing : drawers, chemise, underwaist, nightgown, 

flannel petticoat and muslin underskirt. A choice of two or 

three can be made from these garments according to the 

knowledge of the class and simplicity of the finish. 

b Other clothing: shirtwaist or jumper of cotton material, and 

collar or stock for the former. Cutting from pattern or 

drafting, uniting parts, fitting and making will be required. 

Skirt of cotton material such as gingham, pique or duck. 

A simple muslin dress may be made in place of the shirt- 



HOME ECONOMICS 473 

waist and skirt. No elaborate inserting of lace or decora- 
tion should be attempted. 
Each member of the class should do her own planning of 
her garment, choose her material and decide on the cost. 
She should select or design the decoration. No two gar- 
ments should be alike and often it is well for students to 
choose and make different kinds of garments and compare 
results. The need of the student should be a factor in 
choice. Commercial patterns may be used or the garments 
may be drafted by the class. Opportunity for adapting, 
changing patterns and fitting should be given. 
2 Decoration. This should be extremely simple but attractive. 
Suggestions: Herringbone on flannel skirt, cross-stitching or 
chain-stitch for marking undergarments with initials ; feather- 
stitching, hemstitching and satin-stitch for decoration of collars, 
cuffs or yokes. 

IV Alternative suggestions in place of some of the garments 

1 Darning, patching and making over. Darning stockings, under- 
wear and sweaters. Darning and patching bed and table 
linen. Patching clothing, holes, worn places and under arms. 
Cutting over or altering sleeves, waists and skirts. Shortening 
or lengthening skirts. Choice may be made from the above 
list. All of this work should be done on articles needing these 
repairs. They may be provided by the students or supplied 
by the teacher. Family mending may be brought to the class 
if the teacher knows the home conditions to be good. 

2 Articles for cooking classes: (to be given when cooking fol- 
lows the sewing) aprons and caps (for kitchen and serv- 
ing), towels hemmed, marked and provided with hangers. 
Napkins and table cloths hemmed with napery stitch and 
marked. 

3 Millinery (spring). Bow making (practice may be on tissue 
paper before using silk) ; wiring and lining a straw hat ; making 
milliners folds and placing on hat ; renovating materials — lace, 
velvet and silk; trimming hat with these if desired; or making 
lingerie hat on a purchased frame. 

V Discussions in connection with lessons at quiz or at laboratory 

periods 
Suggestions : 

I For clothing. The uses of the necessary stitches, seams and 
parts of the garments ; the best materials for various pur- 



474 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

poses ; the designing, making, laundrying, care and repairing 
of cotton clothing; effect of sun and laundry on colored 
cottons; the number of garments needed and the cost as re- 
lated to income ; economical planning and cutting ; underwear 
for different seasons ; health of body and the relation of 
various textiles to it ; hygienic and comfortable dress, and 
its relation to efficiency ; the comparison of showy vs simple 
decoration ; the use of closets, hangers, drawers and boxes. 

2 For textiles. Where cotton comes from, why it is inex- 
pensive, how it differs from linen, the properties of both, 
what each is best used for. Methods of making cloth, warp 
and woof, judging values of material by feel, look, tearing 
and fraying; the cost, width and worth of cotton and linen 
materials. 

3 Economic and social ideas. The division of income for 
clothing in the average family; plans for simple, attractive 
yet inexpensive garments, the laundry as a factor in expense, 
renovating and making over. The working girls in white 
work factories, their lives, work and wages; the family 
seamstress and her pay ; bargain sales. 

4 Arithmetic questions involving fractions in such problems as 
the amount of material needed to cut into bias bands for a 
given space and the cost of the same in different materials. 
The amount of material which should be purchased when 
tucks of a given depth are to be used, estimates of the cost 
of garment involving all the materials, trimmings and find- 
ings needed. Making out of bills and receipts, how much a 
worker can make per day on under-garments and simple cot- 
ton uniforms if paid by the piece. 

// Dressmaking and millinery course. One year 
Advanced course to follow the general course on garment con- 
struction 
The object is to give the girl some technical skill which she can 
increase by practice. This course will give the student a voca- 
tional foundation useful at home or in trade, and is suitable for the 
third or fourth year of the high school. 
I Problems 

I Review of principles learned in general course of sewing and 
machine work. 
a Each student should have a thorough knowledge of at least 
two machines, single and double thread, threading, regulation 



HOME ECONOMICS 475 

of tension, oiling, cleaning, putting on band, putting in 
needle, special attachments, and running. 

b Garments: one of the following — underwaist with lace in- 
serted, short negligee, short baby dress, or fancy guimpe. 

2 Cotton dress of sheer material with tucked blouse waist with 
lace or embroidery inserted and gored skirt. 

Requirements. The use of patterns or drafting, choice of 
materials and style of gown, decisions on cost, measuring, 
economical cutting, basting, fitting waist, hanging skirt, con- 
sideration of seams and bottom of skirt, plackets, and lesson 
in pressing. 

3 Close fitting lining (pattern or drafting), cutting out and put- 

ting together, fitting, seams finished and boned. This problem 
can be simply practice or can be used for an inside lining for 
the following gown. 

4 Wool dress, waist and skirt : the use of patterns or drafting 
Requirements. Consideration of style of waist, and style of 

skirt (straight, gored, or circular). Choice of materials and 
decoration and questions of cost. Plans for seam finish 
(overcast, bound, turned in and run or pinked). Learning 
to make buttonholes on wool material, wool plackets and 
belts, finishing of bottom of skirt (braids, facings and dust 
ruffles), fastenings (hooks and eyes and buttons). Lesson 
on wool pressing. 

5 Decoration if desired, for collars, cufifs. belts, stocks, waist and 
yokes. Handmade trimmings as plaiting, cording, shirring or 
braiding, hemstitching, cross-stitching, featherstitching, French 
knots, satin-stitch or bullion stitch. 

6 Millinery 

a Winter hat. Requiring a study of bandeaux, buckram and 
wire frame construction, covering frames, facings, bindings, 
and trimming practice (shirring, tucking, cording, rolled hem, 
plain fold, milliners fold, joining bias pieces, rosettes and 
bows). 

b Summer hat. Purchasing hat and facing, lining and trimming 
it, using some of principles learned before. 

c Renovating. Ribbons, velvet, silk, lace, feathers and flowers. 
Each girl to bring materials from home to teach her how to 
make a collection of renovated materials for use when needed. 

II Alternatives 

1 Silk or less expensive shirtwaist lined in place of wool dress. 

2 Renovation and making over an old wool gowti. 



476 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

III Discussions on such subjects as 

1 Clothing. How to make a machine give best service ; decora- 
tion and how to make it simple yet effective; how to test 
cloth; how to buy; what each girl should spend a year on 
her clothing; comparing ready-made with homemade clothing; 
cost of clothing in the management of home expenses. 

2 Millinery. When a hat is becoming; color and detail in mil- 
linery ; making over old materials ; economy. 

3 Health as affected by clothing. Wool and its uses in cold 
weather; the effect of pressure on the body, corsets, hats, and 
belts. Weight in heavy garments, uneven temperature in thin 

stockings, low shoes and lace guimpes in winter. 

4 Consideration of the manufacture of the leading textiles ; 
countries on which we depend ; our own trade ; standard ma- 
terials ; adulterations of materials ; the old historic textiles and 
the beautiful new ones. 

5 Social and economic ideas in labor and cost of manufacture; 
keeping accounts and the ethics of shopping. 

6 Arithmetic problems in connection with the course, such as 
estimates of quantity and cost of materials, comparative cost 
of various gowns, and hats, percentage of gain or loss in pur- 
chase by wholesale or retail, of earning capacity, and use of 
income for various purposes. 



GROUP VIII (continued) 

MANUAL TRAINING 

First year, Joinery 

Second year, Wood turning and pattern making 

The following syllabus in manual training covers the subject of 
woodworking for the first and second years of the high school, 
allowing from six to eight periods per week for actual work in 
the shops. Shopwork for the later years of the course should be 
provided in accordance with the demands of local industries and 
interests and can not, therefore, be described within the limits of a 
syllabus. Wherever possible, shopwork should be arranged in 
double periods to avoid wasting time in getting ready and in clear- 
ing up. The syllabus undertakes merely to designate the processes 
to be learned, the tools to be employed, and suitable models or 
projects. For the present it is not expected that the State Educa- 
tion Department will set examinations in manual training. Credit 
will be given for work approved by the Department after due 
inspection and certified by principals on the basis of one count for 
two hours of actual shopwork per week during the school year. 

The equipments described have been made more complete than 
are absolutely necessary for every school, to the end that schools 
may make well considered selections in accordance with local inter- 
est and needs. 

The tools selected should be first-class in every respect. It does 
not pay to purchase tools of an inferior grade. Better grades are 
always cheaper in the long run, and what is more important still, 
they do not get out of order so easily and thus hinder the pupil 
in his work. Good substantial benches should be provided. Those 
having a rapid acting iron vise are preferable, although the wooden 
vice, which is somewhat cheaper, can be used with fairly good 
results. In addition to the regular benches a medium sized cabinet- 
makers bench provided with a head and a tail vice is very useful 
for larger pieces of work. 

For wood turning and pattern making the combination lathe and 
pattern making bench is recommended. There are several good 
makes of lathes on the market ; those having strength, good work- 
manship, simplicity of manipulation, and a minimum likelihood of 
getting out of order should be selected. Self-oiling bearings are 
preferable to others. 

'477 



478 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

When possible every pupil should be provided with a set of 
bench plane cutters and two chisels, a ^ inch and a i inch. These 
he should be required to keep sharp for his own use, and should 
keep them in his private locker when not at work. In addition to 
the plane cutters and chisels a ^4 i^ich and a i inch turning gouge 
and a ^4 i^ich and a ^ inch skew chisel should be furnished to 
every pupil taking wood turning and pattern making. This plan 
is inexpensive and has the additional advantage of placing the 
responsibility upon the individual boy of keeping his own edged 
tools sharp, one of the most important factors in doing good work. 

A small power circular saw table is very desirable for cutting 
out rough stock and should be omitted from the equipment only 
when absolutely necessary. The band saw is also useful especially 
in larger schools. 

The best means of power is the electric motor. Where this is 
not available the gas engine is a fairly good substitute if due pre- 
cautions are taken against fire. About lo horse-power should be 
sufificient for the following equipment. The cost of shafting, 
hangers, belts, installation etc. depends largely upon local conditions 
and could be given only approximately here. 

The following lists provide equipments for classes of 20 pupils 
each. If provision for more or less than 20 is desired single bench 
equipments and a proportionate number of general tools can be 
added or deducted as the case may be. 

The cost of equipment per pupil naturally decreases as the num- 
ber of pupils increases. Only one of a kind of many special tools 
is needed, whether the class unit be 20 or more. 

Quotations below are based upon present commercial prices. 
These will naturally vary in different localities and under different 
conditions. 

Cost of supplies. On an average about % of a cent per student 
per period or hour may be reckoned to cover the cost of supplies. 
This necessarily varies with the number, size and character of 
models constructed, and with the kinds of wood used. When large 
projects are desired it is customary to require the pupils to pay 
for at least a part of the stock. 

FIRST YEAR 

JOINERY 
No time is provided for regular mechancial drawing in the fol- 
lowing courses. It is assumed that the subject is given in another 
room, and in cooperation with the shops. 



MANUAL TRAINING 479 

Exercises 

1 Measuring and laying out work 

a Measuring with ruler and square 

h Laying out work with try-square, gages, compasses and steel 

square 
c Uses of pencil, scratch awl and knife for making lines 

2 Planing 

a Adjustment and care of planes 

h Planing surfaces with jack and smoothing planes, jointing 

edges, planing to gage lines 
c Block planing on end and oblique grain 
d Jointing with fore plane and jointer 
e Chamfering 
/ Rabbeting, use of universal plane, chute board, and router 

plane 

3 Sawing 

a Backsawing ; squaring ends, sides of grooves, sawing with and 

obliquely to grain 
h Crosscut and ripsawing to line with pieces on trestle and m 

vise 
c Use of saw box and miter box 
d Use of pad saw, compass saw and turning saw on curved work 

4 Chiseling 

a Sides and bottom of grooves, across and with grain 
h Scoring, rounding corners, chamfering 
c Paring mortises and tenons 

5 Boring 

a Use of auger bits with and across grain, boring through and 

to given depth 
h Use of dowel bits, expansive bits, Forstner bits, and drill bits 
c Use of countersink 
d Boring with gimlets and awls 

6 Nailing and screw-driving 

a Kinds of nails and screws 

b Nailing straight work, toe nailing, blind nailing, setting nails 

c Use of and methods of driving flathead and roundhead screws 

7 Gluing 

a Kinds of glue (liquid and dry) 
h Preparation of glue 



480 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c Gluing side and end grain 
d Gluing rubbed joints 
e Gluing clamped joints 
/ Gluing doweled joints 

8 Sharpening 

a Grinding straight edged tools on grindstone and grinder 

h Grinding curved edged tools 

c Removing wire edge and sharpening on oilstones, both straight 

and curved edged tools 
d Use of leather strop in sharpening 
e Theory of saw filing and setting 

9 Finishing 

a Sandpapering with dififerent numbered sandpaper 

h Painting 

c Staining and waxing 

d Shellacking and varnishing 

e Polishing with pumice and rotten stone 

/ Use of steel wool 

10 Miscellaneous 

The use of gouges, miter box, spokeshave, picture frame vise, 
drawing knife, chuting board, plane gage, cabinet scraper, scrap- 
ing with veneer scraper, etc. 

11 Proper care of all tools 

Regular models 

Time required 40 weeks, six or eight periods per week 

The following suggestive list of regular models is given with the 
idea that it is better for the pupil to do a moderate amount of 
work zvell, rather than to cover more ground at the expense of 
accuracy and neatness. 

The list is made out for the average pupil. Some will do more 
and some less. 

1 Halved joint 

2 Tool rack 

3 Straight nailed box 

4 Pen and ink tray 

5 Drawing board 

6 T square 

7 Mortise and tenon joint (various forms) 



MANUAL TRAINING 481 

8 Rabbeted joint 

9 Housed joint 
10 Project 

Supplementary models for advanced work 
Miter joint, picture frame, dovetail joint, bookrack. cabinet box, 
printing frame, plant stand, plate rack, bookcase, hall tree, hall 
clock, morris chair, library table, screen, music cabinet, lamp. 

As pupils progress in woodwork such allied subjects as forestry, 
forest fires, lumbering operations, characteristics, properties and 
defects of wood, purpose and methods of seasoning, selecting lum- 
ber for various kinds of work, manufacture of nails, screws, glue, 
varnish, paints, stains etc. should be discussed and emphasized. 

When lantern slides are available the stereopticon is a great aid 
to the work. Notebook work is also valuable in this connection. 

Equipment 

Individual tools and benches 

20 benches, joinery, 4 foot with iron vise $200 . . 

20 bench dusters, 9 inch 4 5o 

20 bench hooks made by boys 

20 brad awls 1 1/2 inch handled 89 

20 chisels, I inch tang firmer 6 09 

20 chisels, ]/> inch tang firmer 4 46 

20 gages, marking, no. 64 2 49 

20 knives, sloyd 2^ inch blade 5 41 

20 mallets, hickory 2^ inch face 271 

20 nail sets, knurled round • I 67 

20 planes, jack, 2 inch cutter 39 60 

20 planes, block giYz" x i^" cutter 14 40 

20 rulers, single fold. 24 inch no. 18 3 • • 

20 saws, back, 10 inch 18 60 

20 try-squares, 60 inch no. sYz 4 2i 

General tools for tool room 

3 bevels, sliding T 6 inch no. 2 63 

3 bits, sets dowel 3/16 inch to 15/32 inch 7 ^^ 

4 braces, bit 8 inch sweep 3 72 

10 chisels, socket firmer, two each, % inch, % inch, ^ inch, 

3/4 inch, I }/> inch 3 60 

4 clamps, steel bar, to open 24 inches 3 80 

3 clamps, steel bar, to open 36 inches 3 60 



482 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

3 clamps, steel bar, to open 48 inches $4 20 

3 countersinks, Rose % inch 69 

4 dividers, wing 6 inch 68 

8 gouges, tang outside firmer, two each, j4 ii^ch, ^ inch, i^ inch, 

% inch 2 60 

6 hammers, bell-faced 13 ounce 2 65 

12 hand screws, 14 inch • • 5 85 

12 hand screws, 16 inch 6 88 

3 oilstones, no. 2 India combination coarse and medium I 26 

2 oil stones, medium, lily white washite 8" x 2" x i" i 44 

2 planes, smoothing, 1% inch cutter 316 

1 saw, crosscutting, 24 inch 7 pts i 45 

4 saws, crosscutting, 22 inch 9 pts 5 40 

3 saws, rip, 22 inch 6 pts 4 05 

If no power saw table is installed for cutting up stock, a crosscutting handsaw and a ripsaw 
should be provided for about every three pupils. 

6 scrapers, cabinet hand 3" x 5" 30 

6 screw-drivers, perfect handle 7 inch i 89 

4 spokeshaves, no. 53 I 12 

2 steel squares, carpenters 18" x 24" I 44 

The following group of tools should remain practically the same, even if the number of pupils 
in a class is more or less than 20. 

I figures, set 3/16 inch for wood I OS 

3 files, cabinet 8 inch 90 

3 files, cabinet 10 inch i 14 

I file brush, no. 2 24 

1 gage, panel, no. 85 . . . ■ • I7 

2 gages, mortise, no. 77 I 08 

I gouge, % inch tang outside firmer 27 

I gouge, I inch tang outside firmer 43 

I gouge, i^ inch tang outside firmer 68 

I gouge, % inch tang outside firmer 33 

I gouge, % inch tang outside firmer 37 

I hammer, bell-faced 16 ounce 57 

6 hand screws, 9^ inch , ~"3 50 

6 hand screws, 14 inch 4 32 

1 m^iter box, no. 33 9 77 

2 oilers, copper ^ pt 28 

3 oilstones, slips Arkansas 2^/4" x i^^" 36 

1 plane, plow no. 45 5 85 

2 planes, rabbeting, no. 78 2 20 

2 planes, tonguing and grooving, no. 48 3 66 

I plane, gage, no. 333 i 05 

I plane, scraper, with extra toothing cutter i 65 

1 plane, router, no. 71 ^ i 10 

2 planes, fore t8 inch no. 606 4 76 

I plane, jointer 24 inch no. 608 3 40 

I pliers, combination side cutting 7 inch 78 

1 saw, turning wooden frame 18 inch 90 

2 rasps, wood lo inch ,,,,,.. 76 



MANUAL TRAINING 483 

I saw, compass 16 inch $0 33 

I saw, pad keyhole 18 

I saw set 80 

I scraper, veneer, no. 80 70 

1 screw-driver, perfect handle 12 inch 65 

2 screw-drivers, clock 3 inch 48 

I vise, picture frame 4 05 

I vise, saw filing, 10 inch 80 

I power grindstone no. lo-A 25^" x 24" 15 . . 

I cabinetmakers bench, medium (without drawers) 12 .. 

I circular saw table 80 . . 

I 10 horse-power motor , , 175 . . 

SECOND YEAR 
I WOOD TURNING 
Joinery and wood turning should precede pattern making. Good 
work in the latter subject always depends upon the pupils' ability 
to properly manipulate the turning lathe, and to skilfully use ordi- 
nary hand tools. 

1 The lathe 

a Name of parts 

b Adjustment to different speeds for various kinds of work 

c Proper connection with source of power 

d Care of lathe 

Exercises 

2 Turning between centers 

a Centering and adjusting work in lathe 

b Use of gouge in roughing off work; cutting concave grooves 

and curves with gouges 
c Smoothing and truing with skew chisel, cutting at right angles 

and obliquely to grain with skew chisel, making heads and 

other convex curves, cutting V-shaped grooves with skew 

chisel and cutting work out of lathe 
d Use of parting tool for cutting off work and making square 

grooves, use of other square edged tools in making grooves 
e Getting diameter of work with calipers, laying out work with 

dividers, use of inside calipers 

3 Face plate and screw chuck turning 

a Methods of adjusting work to face plates and screw chucks 
b Adjustment of lathe for face plate work 

c Turning work to diameter with parting tool and other straight 
edged tools 

31 



484 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

d Smoothing flat surfaces with spear point and other straight 

edged tools 
Turning circular grooves and free-hand curves with round nose 
/ Cutting convex curves and straight sided grooves with spear 

point, cutting out corners with spear point and other straight 

edged tools 

4 Special chuck turning 

a Adjustment of work to hollow chuck 

b Adjustment of work to mandrel chuck 

c Making special chucks for special work 

d Fitting work to special chucks, turning hollow work 

5 Finishing 

a Sandpapering in lathe, use of sandpapering disk, use of sand- 
papering roll 

b Polishing in lathe with soft cloth, use of shellac and oil and 
wax in polishing 

c Use of bufifing wheel 

6 Special supplementary work 

a Various colored woods glued up for turning 
b Inlaying work in lathe 
c Eccentric turning 

Regular models 

Time required 18 weeks, six or eight periods per week 

1 Between centers 
a Cylinders 

b Steps 

c Tapers 

d Baluster with bead and groove, and other curves 

e Tool handle with ferrule 

2 Face plate and chuck work 
a Rosettes 

b Disk chuck 

c Card tray or pin tray 

d Powder box, napkin ring or simple goblet 

Supplementary models for advanced work 

Mallets, gavel, candlestick, rolHng pin, potato masher, dumb- 
bell, Indian club, towel ring, curtain ring, stocking ball, baseball 
bat, wooden bowl, collection plate, picture frames, small colonial 
table, piano stool, sphere, mirror frame. 



MANUAL TRAINING 485 

II PATTERN MAKING 
Because of the fact that patterns often differ in many respects 
from the shape of their castings, pupils should be required to draw 
a good sketch showing the exact shape and other requirements of 
a pattern before beginning the construction. This fixes in mind 
the question of core prints, allowances for finish, fillets etc., which 
seldom appear on a regular blueprint. It also gives a drawing 
of the pattern itself rather than of the casting to work from. 

1 Introduction 

a Purpose of pattern making 

h Kinds of wood and other material used 

c Meaning of the term " master pattern " 

d Methods of numbering and recording patterns 

2 General principles 

a " Shrinkage," meaning of the term, allowance needed for dif- 
ferent kinds of metal discussion of shrink rulers 
h " Draft," purpose of, amount and kinds 
c " Finish " allowance made for different classes of work 
d Meaning of " shake " 

3 Construction of patterns 

a Common straight work ; selecting stock, roughing out, lathe 
and bench work on straight patterns 

h Split patterns ; why and where split, use of wood and metal 
dowels on split patterns, locating dowels, methods of holding 
parts of split pattern together while turning 

c Built-up work ; object of building up, consideration of warp- 
ing, methods of placing and fastening parts together 

d Core prints, purpose of; relative size; purpose of loose core 
prints 

e Fillets ; purpose of fillets ; common materials used (wood, 
leather and wax), methods of attaching, kinds used for vari- 
ous kinds of work 

/ Core boxes ; purpose of, methods of construction (use of core 
box plane and core box machines), use of half core boxes 

4 Special feature : rapping plates ; match boards ; patterns with 

loose parts ; lettering patterns ; follow boards 

5 Varnishing 

a Purpose of varnishing 
b Kinds of varnish used 



486 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

c Methods of applications 

d Purpose of different colored varnish on the same pattern 
c Rubbing down 
6 Cores 

a Purpose of cores 

h Kinds of cores (green sand, dry sand and loam cores) 

c Materials used for cores 

d Methods of making cores with core boxes and core machines 

Regular patterns 

Time required 22 weeks, six or eight periods per week 

1 Straight ingot pattern for metal 

2 Washer pattern 

3 Split pattern and core box for lathe hollow chuck 

4 Crank arm 

5 Cone pulley, built-up 

Supplementary patterns for advanced work 
Screw chuck, face plate, pipe T joint, pipe elbow, return bend, 
built-up pulley, hand wheel, small bell, globe valve, throttle valve, 
small dynamo and motor pattern, small gas engine pattern, screw 
propeller. 

MOLDING AND CASTING 
The molding and casting given in this connection are intended to 
illustrate the requirements of a good pattern. Ordinarily these pro- 
cesses should be done by the teacher before the whole class ; and at 
such times during the progress of the course as will best illustrate 
the needs of the pattern in hand. 

WOOD TURNING AND PATTERN MAKING 

Equipment 

Individual tools, lathes and benches 

20 awls, forged 3J^ inch — 4 feet long $1 60 

19 benches, combination lathe and pattern making 15 • • 

I bench, combination lathe and pattern making, 5 feet 4 inches 

long 18 . . 

20 calipers, outside B & S 5 inch rex 12 . . 

20 chisels, I inch tang firmer * 6 eg 

20 chisels, J4 iiich tang firmer , 3 69 



MANUAL TRAINING 



487 



20 chisels, 1% inch skew turning handled 

20 chisels, % inch skew turning handled 

20 chisels, %. inch skew turning handled 

20 gages, marking, no. 64 

20 gouges, I inch turning handled , 

20 gouges, % inch turning handled 

20 gouges, %. inch turning handled 

20 knives, sloyd, 21/2 inch blade 

19 lathes, 1 1 inch swing 48 inch bed 

I lathe, 1 1 inch swing 60 inch bed 

20 mallets, made by boys 

20 oilers, copperized steel J^ pt 

20 oilstone slips, 3^" x ij^" 

20 parting tools, 5^ inch handled 

20 planes, smoothing, no. 603 

20 planes, block, no. g]^ 

20 round nose tools, ^8 inch handled 

20 rulers, single fold 24 inch no. 18 

20 rulers, shrinkage 12" long %" to 12" long 

20 saws, back 12 inch 

20 spear points, ^ inch handled 

20 try-squares, no. 5^" — 6" 

General tools for tool room 

3 bit braces, 8 inch sweep 

4 dividers, Vt^ing 6 inch 

6 calipers, inside B & S 5 inch rex 

6 hammers, bell-faced 13 ounces 

6 hand screws, yl-i inch 

12 hand screv^s, 12 inch 

6 hand screvi^ s, 1 1 5^2 inch 

12 hand screws, 14 inch 

3 oilstones, India combination coarse and medium 

3 oilstones, washite lYs" x 2" x 8" 

3 planes, jack, no. 605 

4 saws, crosscutting 22 inch 9 pts 

4 saws, rip 22 inch 6 pts 

6 screw-drivers, perfect handle 7 inch 

I steel square, 18" x 24" carpenters 

I steel square, 8" x 12" 

I trimmer 

I wrench, monkey, knife handle 12 inch 

I wrench, monkey, knife handle 8 inch 

The following group of tools is practically the same for either large or small classes. 

I awl, magazine brad 

I awl, belt 

3 bevels, sliding T wood stock, 6 inch 

I bit, expansive, large 

I set bits, twist for wood 2/32 inch to 1 1/32 inch 



$12 40 
7 65 

6 .. 

2 49 

13 39 
9 41 

7 79 
5 41 

85s .. 
50 .. 

3 •• 

2 34 
9 64 

31 60 

14 40 
7 44 

3 •• 

ID . . 

21 40 

871 

4 21 



79 
68 
60 
65 
97 
97 
92 
85 
64 
16 

94 
40 
40 



16 



72 
43 

70 
SO 



40 
40 
63 
72 
I 44 



488 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE 6TATE OF NEW YORK 

1 set bits, auger 4/16 inch to 16/16 inch $4 46 

2 sets bits, dowel 3/16 to 7>^/i6 inch 5 08 

I bit brace, ratchet, 10 inch sweep I cq 

I calipers, outside, lock joint 10 inch i jo 

10 chisels, tang firmer, two each, Ys inch, s/g inch, 54 inch, i inch, 

1^2 inch 2 13 

4 chisels, round point turning handled, two each 1/16 inch. 



inch 



I 60 



6 clamps, carriage makers iron 6 inch I 63 

2 cornering tools, % inch and }i inch 40 

2 countersinks. Rose 5^ inch 45 

I drill, hand chuck 12 drills 2 

I dowel plate, % inch to ^ inch 30 

I filler, oil can, engineers i^ pt 60 

I set figures, 3/16 inch for wood I 05 

12 gouges, tang inside firmer, two each % inch, ^ inch, i^ inch, 

54 inch, % inch, i inch 4 15 

I gouge, tang inside ^ inch 43 

I gouge, tang inside % inch , ^y 

I gouge, tang inside % inch 33 

I grindstone, pulley and iron frame lo-A 2^" x 24" 15 • • 

A water tool grinder is very useful. When it can be afforded it takes the place of a grindstone 
(approximately $40; 14" x ij" wheel). 

MOLDING AND CASTING 

Equipment 

I bench bellows, 10 inch i 80 

I bench rammer 25 

I flash, two part, 8" x 12" x 16" 50 

1 heart and square molding trowel 40 

2 ladles for melting, 4 inch and 6 inch 73 

I lifter, molders l4 inch 43 

I molding trough 15 . . 

I oven, gas baking for cores I 25 

I gas-burner for melting metal i 25 

The oven can be heated by being placed on the gas-burner and then removed when not in use. 

I riddle (sieve) 12 mesh So 

I square trowel 2" x 5" 60 

Trade catalogs and special estimates should be obtained from 
several reliable dealers. 



MANUAL TRAINING 



489 



List of books on shopwork 
Van Deusen. Beginning Woodwork at Home and in School. Manual 

Arts Press, Peoria, 111. $1 
Goss. Bench Work in Wood. Ginn & Co. 70c 

Ritchey. High School Manual Training Course in Woodwork. Amer- 
ican Bk Co. $1.45 
Parks. Educational Woodworking for School and Home. Macmillan 

Co. $1 
Griff eth. Essentials of Woodworking. Manual Arts Press $1.25 
Daily & Pollitt. Woodworking for Schools on Scientific Lines. Manual 

Arts Press 75c 
Hodgson. Modern Carpentry. F. J. Drake & Co. $1 
Crawshaw. Problems in Furniture Making. Manual Arts Press $1 
Wheeler. Woodworking for Beginners. Putnam $2.50 
Mission Furniture: How to Make It, Part i. Popular Mechanics Co., 

Chicago 25c 
Hodgson. Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer. Popular 

Mechanics Co. $2 
Keeler. Our Native Trees. Scribner $2 

Mathews. Familiar Trees and Their Leaves. Appleton $1.75 
Pinchot. Primer of Forestry, parts I and II, Bulletins 173 and 358. Bureau 

of Forestry 5c each 
Laslett. Timber and Timber Trees. Macmillan Co. $2.50 
Crawshaw. Problems in Woodturning. Manual Arts Press 80c 
Ross. Wood Turning. Ginn & Co. $1 
Purfield. Wood Pattern Making. Manual Arts Press $1.50 
Dingey. Machinery Pattern Making. John Wiley & Sons $2 
Rose. Pattern Markers Assistant. D. Van Nostrand Co. $2.50 
Breckenridge, Mersereau & Moore. Shop Problems in Mathematics. 

Ginn & Co. $1 



PUBLISHING HOUSES 

The names and addresses of the publishers referred to in this bulletin 
are as follows : 



Amer. Bk Co. 

American Textbook Co. 
Appleton 

Architectural Record 

Bates & Guild 
Cassell 
Century 

Chicago Book Co. 
Davis Press 
Dodd 

Doubleday 
Drake 

Ellis 

Ginn 

Harper 

Heath 

Hessling 

Holt 

Houghton 

Inland Printer 

Lane 

Lewis Pub. Co. 

Longmans 

Macmillan 

Manual Arts Press 

McClure 

Merrill 

Newson 

Popular Mechanics 

Putnam 

Scott, Foresman 

Scribner 

Simmons 

Stickley 

Taylor Holden Co. 

Van Nostrand 

Wiley 



American Book Company, lOO Washington sq., 

New York, N. Y. 
Philadelphia, Pa. 
D. Appleton & Co., 25-35 W. 32d St., New York, 

N. Y. 
Architectural Record Co., 11 E. 24th st.. New 

York, N.Y. 
Bates & Guild Co., 144 Congress st., Boston, Mass. 
Cassell & Co., 43-45 E. 19th st.. New York, N. Y.. 
The Century Co., Union sq., New York, N. Y. 
226 S. LaSalle st., Chicago, 111. 
The Davis Press, 38 Front st., Worcester, Mass. 
Dodd, Mead & Co., Fourth av. & 30th st.. New 

York, N. Y. 
Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. 
Frederick J. Drake & Co., 1323-25 Michigan av., 

Chicago, 111. 
George H. Ellis Co., 272 Congress St., Boston, 

Mass. 
Ginn & Co., 29 Beacon st., Boston, Mass. 
Harper & Brothers, Franklin sq.. New York, N. Y. 
D. C. Heath & Co., 120 Boylston st., Boston, Mass. 
Bruno Hessling, 64 E. 12th st., New York, N. Y. 
Henry Holt & Co., 34 W. 33d st.. New York, N. Y. 
Houghton Mifflin Co., 4 Park st., Boston, Mass. 
The Inland Printer Co., 120-30 Sherman st., 

Chicago, 111. 
John Lane Co., 110-14 W. 32d st., New York, 

N. Y. 
Lewis Publishing Co., 358 Dearborn st., Chicago 

111. 
Longmans, Green & Co., Fourth av. & 30th St., 

New York, N. Y. 
The Macmillan Company, 64-66 Fifth av.. New 

York, N. Y. 
Peoria, 111. 

Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. 
Charles E. Merrill Co., 44-60 E. 23d st.. New 

York, N. Y. 
Newson & Co., 27-29 W. 23d st., New York, N. Y. 
Popular Mechanics Co., 318 W. Washington st., 

Chicago, 111. 
G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2-6 W. 45th St., New York, 

N. Y. 
Scott J Foresman & Co., 623 S. Wabash av., 

Chicago, 111. 
Charles Scribner's Sons, 153-57 Fifth av.. New 

York, N. Y. 
Parker P. Simmons, 3 E. 14th st.. New York, 

N. Y. 
Gustav Stickley, 29 W. 34th st.. New York, N. Y. 
Springfield, Mass. 
D. Van Nostrand Co., 23 Murray St., New York, 

N. Y. 
John Wiley & Sons, 43-45 E. 19th st., New York, 

N. Y. 

490 ^' 



lA ^ 



